ngo@tammy.harvard.edu (Tom Ngo) (03/26/91)
As you may know, in mid-December I posted a proposal to extend C++ by
adding the ~const type-specifier. I have received a lot of good
advice--thank you.
Here is the final draft, which will be mailed to X3J16 in a few days.
I would appreciate hearing any criticisms. If you support this
proposal, your going-over with a fine toothed comb will make it more
likely to be accepted. If you do not support it, I would be very
interested to know why! I would like to save the committee as much
time as possible by working out ramifications and addressing potential
objections.
This version is quite different from any previous version, as I have
rewritten it from scratch, changing a few basic positions and working
in a number of the generalizations that were proposed on the net. It
is in LaTeX, and for me it comes out to 10 pages.
If you feel inclined to comment, I would appreciate hearing from you
in the next couple of days, as I hope to catch the next X3J16
extensions group mailing.
Thanks in advance,
--Tom Ngo
ngo@tammy.harvard.edu
===========================================================================
% Proposal for ~const extension to C++
% $Revision: 2.2 $ $Date: 91/03/25 23:08:48 $
\documentstyle[fullpage,11pt]{article}
\newcommand{\CC}{C$++$}
\newcommand{\this}{\protect\verb|this|}
\newcommand{\const}{\protect\verb|const|}
\newcommand{\volatile}{\protect\verb|volatile|}
\newcommand{\virtual}{\protect\verb|virtual|}
\newcommand{\inline}{\protect\verb|inline|}
\newcommand{\static}{\protect\verb|static|}
\newcommand{\nconst}{\protect\verb|\~\/const|}
\newcommand{\nvolatile}{\protect\verb|\~\/volatile|}
\newcommand{\nvirtual}{\protect\verb|\~\/virtual|}
\newcommand{\ninline}{\protect\verb|\~\/inline|}
\newcommand{\nregister}{\protect\verb|\~\/register|}
\newcommand{\typespec}{{\it type-specifier}}
\newcommand{\cvqual}{{\it cv-qualifier}}
\newcommand{\cvquals}{{\it cv-qualifiers}}
\newcommand{\pro}{{\tt [+]}}
\newcommand{\con}{{\tt [-]}}
\newcommand{\public}{\protect\verb|public|}
\newcommand{\private}{\protect\verb|private|}
\newcommand{\ie}{{\it i.e.\/}}
\newcommand{\eg}{{\it e.g.\/}}
\begin{document}
\title{Proposed extension to \CC: \nconst}
\author{J. Thomas Ngo\\$<$ngo@tammy.harvard.edu$>$}
\date{March 23, 1991 (DRAFT)}
\maketitle
\begin{abstract}
This document is presented to the ANSI committee for the
standardization of \CC\ (X3J16), and is intended for consideration
by the extensions group.
I propose the addition of a new \typespec, \nconst.
Only members of a class may be specified as \nconst.
A data member that is specified as \nconst\ can be modified
even if the object of which it is a part is specified as \const.
A member function that is specified as \nconst\ can modify any data
member in the object for which it is called, even if that object
is specified as \const. The primary reason for introducing the
\nconst\ specifier would be to provide a way to specify how the
bitwise representation of an abstractly \const\ object might change,
entirely via specifiers in the class declaration.
In the first section I define the \nconst\ specifier in the context
of the {\it Annotated \CC\ Reference Manual} (ARM) and explore its
ramifications.
In the second and third sections I describe additional suggestions
that should be considered ancillary to the \nconst\ proposal. These
potential enhancements, which emerged from discussions of \nconst\
on the Usenet group {\it comp.std.c++}, include generalizations of
\nconst-like syntax, namely \nvolatile\ and \nvirtual.
\end{abstract}
\section{Core proposal}
\subsection{Motivation}
One often needs to modify the bit representation of an object
without changing what the object represents. This is usually done
for efficiency, practicality, or improved encapsulation. The
purpose of the language construct proposed here is to improve the
ability of \CC\ to accommodate such situations in an elegant and
expressive manner.
The distinction between {\em bitwise} and {\em abstract} constness
is essential. I draw from a valuable personal communication from
Brian Kennedy $<$bmk@csc.ti.com$>$: A \const\ object is {\em
bitwise const} if the program will not modify its bit
representation. It is {\em abstractly const} if the program will
not modify what the object represents, but might modify its bit
representation. The compiler will, for the benefit of the
programmer, enforce the abstract constness of such an object, as
defined by the programmer through the constness of its member
functions.
(Brian informs me that he is drafting an X3J16 proposal to clarify
the effects of casts from \const. An important goal in his proposal
will be to define the circumstances under which an object can be
bitwise const. In this document I have avoided that question,
except where it is affected by the proposed construct.)
The currently accepted way to alter the bit representation of an
object that is abstractly \const\ is to cast away the \const\
attribute as required. It has been pointed out that such casts can
be useful in that they do call attention to code that can change the
bitwise representation of a \const\ object. Furthermore, I am told
that efforts are underway to define clearly the effects of casting
away \const. However, the value of permitting casts from \const\
has been debated, and it is clear that the mechanism leaves much to
be desired in the way of expressive capability.
This proposal outlines an alternative to casting away \const, using
a new \typespec\ called \nconst. Since this new specifier can
coexist with casts from \const, it is not necessarily suggested that
such casts be disallowed. Rather, it is hoped that the \nconst\
mechanism will provide an alternative, more elegant way to specify
in what ways the bitwise representation of a \const\ object can be
altered.
\subsection{Definition in terms of the ARM}
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Following ARM 7.1.6 [Type Specifiers], a \typespec\ can be:
\begin{verbatim}
simple-type-name
...
const
volatile
~const
\end{verbatim}
The \nconst\ specifier may appear in the \typespec\ of a nonstatic,
nonconst, nonpointer member, whether it is data or a function.
\item
Following the same section, each element of a \const\ array is
\const. Each nonfunction, nonstatic, nonpointer member of a \const\
class object is \const\ unless it is specified as \nconst.
\item
Following ARM 8 [Declarators], a \cvqual\ can be:
\begin{verbatim}
const
volatile
~const
\end{verbatim}
The \nconst\ specifier may appear in the \cvqual\ of a pointer that
is a nonstatic member. And as usual, ``The \cvquals\ apply to the
pointer and not to the object pointed to.'' (ARM 8.2.1)
\item
Following ARM 9.3.1 [The \this\ Pointer]:
A \const\ member function may be called for \const\ and non-\const\
objects. The type of \this\ in such a member function of a class
\verb|X| is \verb|const X *const|.
A non-\const\ member function that is not specified as \nconst\ may
be called only for a non-\const\ object. The type of \this\ in such
a member function is \verb|X *const|.
A member function that is specified as \nconst\ may be called for
both \const\ and non-\const\ objects. The type of \this\ in either
case is \verb|X *const|.
\item
The \nconst\ specifier does not create any new distinct types.
It merely removes the \const\ attribute from \this\ under specific
circumstances. Therefore the introduction of this specifier should
require no new type matching rules, aside from the rules concerning
\this\ that have been outlined above.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Examples}
In my own code I have found a few examples in which it was necessary
to cast away \const. In each case, the \nconst\ specifier would
have been an appropriate alternative.
\begin{description}
\item[Self-resizing array.]
The abstract data type that this class represents is an array of
infinite extent. The elements of the array are held in contiguous
storage. Enough memory is allocated to store only the initialized
elements. When an attempt is made to access an element that would
reside beyond the memory already allocated, the class calls a
private method \verb|grow()|, which allocates new memory and copies
array contents as necessary. This application calls for
\verb|grow()| to be \nconst. That is, the old code
\begin{verbatim}
void DynArray::grow() const
{
DynArray *const t = (DynArray *const) this;
// refer to buffer explicitly through t
}
\end{verbatim}
would be replaced by
\begin{verbatim}
void DynArray::grow() ~const
{
// refer to buffer implicitly through this
}
\end{verbatim}
\item[Internal buffer.]
I have a Trie class which represents a collection of strings.
When I want to retrieve any one of those strings, I need to
write the result to a character buffer. I want the user to be able
to retrieve a string from a Trie that is declared \const, but do
not want him or her to have to worry about allocating the memory for
the character buffer. Hence it is necessary for the buffer to be
allocated and maintained by the Trie itself. Here a \nconst\ data
member is appropriate to represent the character buffer. Thus:
\begin{verbatim}
class Trie {
private:
// [Data members for implementing the Trie itself]
// ...
~const char *~const buf; // Could have made buf, bufsize
~const bufsize; // static, defeating example
public:
const char* operator () () const; // retrieves a string
};
const char* Trie::operator () () const
{
// If necessary, reallocate buf and change bufsize.
// Write the new string to buf.
return buf;
}
\end{verbatim}
\item[Secondary representation.]
This is a trumped-up example, because my real example is too
application-specific. Say you have an container class A. Based on
your intended usage, you have decided that it is best to store the
elements in unsorted form. But occasionally (very rarely) you will
want to know the iUth, jUth and kUth elements of some A that has
been declared \const. So you have decided to do some kind of sort,
but only when it is needed. It is appropriate to store the order
information in \nconst\ data members.
\end{description}
\subsection{Debate}
Is it really worth adding this new feature to the language? Below,
I have labeled each idea with \pro\ or \con, depending on whether in
think it supports or detracts from the proposal.
\begin{itemize}
\item[\pro]
Adding a \nconst\ specifier would introduce no new keywords, and
would not break existing code.
\item[\pro]
The semantics of \nconst\ are simple: \nconst\ breaks the
propagation of the \const\ attribute from an aggregate or object to
its components.
\item[\con]
No program can be written using the \nconst\ specifier that cannot
already be written using casts from \const\ instead.
\item[\con]
In the hands of the wrong programmer, the \nconst\ specifier could
lead to sloppiness. \pro\ On the other hand, all of \CC\ relies on
the neatness of the programmer. For instance, a careless programmer
could easily declare all members of a class public and never use
\const, except where constrained to do so by existing libraries.
This is no reason not to implement \const.
\item[\pro]
The \nconst\ specifier decorates the class declaration with precise
information about which data and function members might not preserve
the bitwise representation of a \const\ object. To the compiler
this might suggest opportunities for optimization. To the human
reader it can express concisely what is happening in the mind of the
class programmer with regard to constructs such as internal caches
and buffers.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Impact on casts from \const}
Casts which remove the \const\ attribute have enjoyed considerable
debate between purists and pragmatists; their existence impacts
issues ranging from code readability to storage implementation. In
the end it is generally agreed that they are here to stay in one
form or another, if only because of the existing body of code that
would break were they to be disfavored.
I choose not to make a specific recommendation about the fate of
casts from \const\ because decisions about their continued existence
and the introduction of \nconst\ need not be tightly linked.
Although the two constructs perform overlapping functions, they can
easily coexist with each other. Nevertheless, the two issues are
related, and during discussions on {\it comp.lang.c++} a number of
observations were made.
\begin{itemize}
\item
As presently worded, the ARM (5.4) states that the effects of
casting away the \const\ attribute are implementation dependent.
However, according to Brian Kennedy $<$bmk@csc.ti.com$>$, efforts
are underway for the effects of such casts to be well-defined and
implementation independent. Apparently Brian is drafting an X3J16
proposal to clarify the wording in the ARM. Therefore casts from
\const\ should not be replaced on the grounds of being
implementation dependent.
\item
Having said that, the knowledge that a program is free of casts from
\const\ could expand a compiler's latitude to perform optimizations
in an implementation independent manner (see next subsection). In
particular, the compiler could propagate constants and be more free
to use flavors of storage such as read-only or write-once memory.
(Both of these benefits accrue from the fact that the \nconst\
specifier is available in the class declaration, not just in the
implementation module.) Thus, compilers could provide optional
compiler flags that permit meaningful optimizations, and under these
options the effects of casting away \const\ would be implementation
dependent.
\item
It is not clear whether there exist applications in which the cast
from \const\ mechanism cannot easily be replaced by the \nconst\
mechanism. Whether or not such applications exist obviously affects
the relationship between \nconst\ and casts from \const.
\item
Jim Adcock $<$jimad@microsoft.UUCP$>$ made a distinction between
``enabling'' and ``supporting'' a feature. In my mind, the
distinction is mostly aesthetic but it also has some practical
aspects. A language construct {\em supports} a feature if one can
use that feature in a way that is elegant, easily maintained, and
simple to compile and optimize. Otherwise, it merely {\em enables}
the feature. (Here is an extreme example: a colleague claims that
C enables object-oriented programming; after all, with an
appropriate set of coding conventions and good discipline one can
manually implement virtual function tables and other object-oriented
constructs.)
I agree with Jim in his statement that cast-from-\const\ merely
enables the ability to alter the bitwise representation of a \const\
object, whereas the \nconst\ mechanism would support it.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Impact on compiler implementation}
In this subsection I explore in greater detail compiler
implementation issues related to \nconst, namely optimization and
choice of storage. As I am unfamiliar with compiler design, I have
kept my remarks general.
An object that is \const\ might be fully, partially, or not at all
bitwise const. The bitwise const parts of an object may be subject
to constant propagation, even across calls to \const\ methods. If
their bit representations can be determined at compile time, it may
be possible to place them in read-only memory. Otherwise, it may
still be possible to place them in write-once or {\em discardable}
memory---\ie\ virtual memory that is paged to disk only the first
time after initialization. To my knowledge, calls to functions---
even ones whose arguments are all bitwise const---cannot be subject
to common subexpression elimination because \CC\ has no facility for
declaring that a function has no side effects.\footnote{It is noted
that GNU \CC\ contains or has contained such a facility, but that it
was incompatible with the language defined by the ARM.}
In a program that is known to be free of casts from \const, the
extent to which a \const\ object is bitwise const can be determined
by inspection of the class declaration. A \const\ object of a class
that contains one or more \nconst\ member functions is not at all
bitwise const, since any of its \const\ member functions could
contain a call to a \nconst\ method. If a class contains no
\nconst\ member function, each data member that is not \nconst\ is
bitwise const, unless that data member itself cannot be bitwise
const.
\subsection{Side note: constness can be subverted during a
constructor}
Reid Ellis $<$rae@utcs.toronto.edu$>$ brought up an issue that might
need to be addressed more explicitly in the ARM. Consider:
\begin{verbatim}
class vulnerable {
public:
vulnerable();
int nonconst();
int subverter() const;
private:
vulnerable& vref;
};
vulnerable::vulnerable() : vref(*this) {}
const vulnerable v;
v.subverter();
\end{verbatim}
If \verb|vulnerable::subverter()| needs to alter a data member of
\verb|v|, all it needs to do is refer to \verb|v| through vref, \eg\
\verb|vref.nonconst()|. This must be a violation of ARM 8.4.3
[References], which states: ``A reference to a plain \verb|T| can
be initialized only with a plain \verb|T|.''
The problem is that while a \const\ object is being constructed, it
is considered non-\const\ so that its data members can be
initialized and manipulated. This provides a window of opportunity
to initialize a non-\const\ pointer or reference that is durable,
\ie\ will still be available after the constructor is finished.
Perhaps the ARM ought to specify explicit rules regarding the
initialization of non-\const\ pointers and references within a
constructor. It is not enough to say that \verb|this| cannot be
used to initialize such entities; at least one must also prohibit
such initializations from components of \this.
\section{Other possible uses of \nconst\ syntax (ancillary)}
\subsection{Partial cast}
The following item was suggested to me, but it causes problems.
Unless these problems can be resolved, I would not suggest that it
be included in the language.
I am told that a possible extension to \CC\ is to have run-time type
information, through a facility similar to \verb|typeof| in gcc/g++.
The next few paragraphs use the syntax accepted by those compilers.
Briefly, the \verb|typeof| facility permits referring to the type of
an expression, and can be used any place that a type name could
normally be used. Here is a simple example:
\begin{verbatim}
int x;
const typeof(x) y; // y is a const int
\end{verbatim}
The suggested extension is to permit the use of \nconst\ to remove
the \const\ attribute from an unknown type, as when \verb|x| happens
to be a macro parameter:
\begin{verbatim}
#define nonconst(a) ~const typeof(a)
nonconst(y) z; // z is a non-const int
\end{verbatim}
The semantics of \nconst\ in this context are very different from
the semantics in the core part of this proposal. Here, \nconst\
removes the \const\ attribute from the type that it modifies. In
the main part of this proposal, \nconst\ breaks the propagation of
the \const\ attribute from an enclosing structure. This difference
in semantics leads to ambiguity if (referring to the example above)
\verb|z| happens to be a member of some class, {\it e.g.}
\begin{verbatim}
class Bar {
~const typeof(y) z;
};
\end{verbatim}
Do we mean for \verb|z| to have the type of \verb|x|, except with
the \const\ attribute removed? Or do we mean for \verb|z| to be
modifiable even if the Bar object of which it is a part happens to
be \const?
\section{Similar specifiers: \nvolatile, \nvirtual\ (ancillary)}
During Usenet discussions of \nconst, four additional specifiers
were suggested:
\begin{description}
\item[\nvolatile]
Do allow optimization on this object, even if the enclosing object
is declared \volatile.
\item[\nvirtual]
This method should not override any base class method, even if a
virtual method with the same name and type signature exists.
\item[\nregister]
Do not enregister this variable, even when optimizing.
\item[\ninline]
Do make this method a real function call.
\end{description}
Of these four specifiers, all except \nregister\ were deemed
reasonable to propose. Good arguments in favor of \nregister\ were
not found.
\subsection{\nvolatile}
It was agreed that \nvolatile\ would provide little in the way of
optimizability and nothing in expressiveness. However, it was
pointed out that since the \const\ and \volatile\ specifiers are
generally handled together in a compiler, it would be easier than
not to define \nvolatile\ in a manner symmetrical to \nconst.
Hence, following ARM 7.1.6 [Type Specifiers], a \typespec\ can be:
\begin{verbatim}
simple-type-name
...
const
volatile
~const
~volatile
\end{verbatim}
\ldots. Each element of a \volatile\ array is \volatile.
Each nonfunction, nonstatic member of a \volatile\ class object is
\volatile\ unless it is declared \nvolatile. And following ARM 8
[Declarators], a \cvqual\ can be:
\begin{verbatim}
const
volatile
~const
~volatile
\end{verbatim}
\subsection{\ninline}
Inline functions are inconvenient to debug using a source-level
debugger. An \inline\ function must be defined in the header file
of a class so that its body will be available to the compiler in
every module in which it is invoked. To use a debugger with the
function, one must remove the \inline\ specifier. Since this causes
the function to have external linkage, one must move the function
definition into the implementation module of the class so that it
will be linked only once.
This procedure would be greatly simplified were it possible to leave
the function definition in the header file. For nonmember functions
it is sufficient to change the \inline\ specifier to \static, thus
giving the function internal linkage. (According to ARM 7.1.1,
``For a nonmember function an \inline\ specifier is equivalent to a
\static\ specifier for linkage purposes.) However, for member
functions, the \static\ keyword additionally removes the \verb|this|
pointer from the parameter list, radically changing its meaning.
Thus, it is proposed that ARM 7.1.2 [Function Specifiers] be
modified so that a {\it fct-specifier} can be:
\begin{verbatim}
inline
~inline
virtual
~virtual (see below)
\end{verbatim}
A member or nonmember function with the \ninline\ specifier has
default internal linkage (\S3.3). It is guaranteed that the
compiler will not inline calls to such a function.
\subsection{\nvirtual}
The purpose of \nvirtual\ would be to permit the compiler to
diagnose a common {\it faux pas}. The programmer of a base class
and the programmer of a derived class can unwittingly write methods
with identical names and types. If the base class method is
virtual, then the derived class method is placed, without warning,
in the virtual function table.
To make matters worse, if the base and derived class methods are
declared \public\ and \private\ respectively, then the derived class
method is unexpectedly \public\ when invoked through a call to the
base class method. This follows from ARM 11.6 [Access to Virtual
Functions].
The \nvirtual\ specifier would have the following definition.
Adding to ARM 7.1.6 [Function Specifiers]:
\begin{quote}
Some specifiers can be used only in a function declarations. A {\it
fct-specifier} can be:
\begin{verbatim}
inline
~inline
virtual
~virtual
\end{verbatim}
The \virtual\ and \nvirtual\ specifiers may be used only in
declarations of nonstatic member functions within a class
declaration; see \S10.2.
\end{quote}
And rewording the first paragraph of ARM 10.2 [Virtual Functions],
\begin{quote}
A function \verb|vf| that is a member of a class \verb|base| is said
to be {\em overridden} by a function \verb|vf| that is a member of a
class \verb|derived| that is derived from \verb|base|, if the
following conditions are met:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
The types (\S8.2.5) of \verb|base::vf| and \verb|derived::vf| are
identical.
\item
The function \verb|base::vf| is declared \virtual.
\item
The function \verb|derived::vf| is not declared \nvirtual.
\end{enumerate}
If all of these conditions are met, then a call of \verb|vf| for an
object of class \verb|derived| invokes \verb|derived::vf| (even if
the access is through a pointer or reference to \verb|base|).
It is conceivable that a method could be declared \nvirtual\
\virtual. The two declarations do not clash; the \nvirtual\
specifier states that the method is not to be placed in the vtable
of any base class, while the \virtual\ specifier causes a new vtable
entry to be created.
In cases of multiple inheritance, ambiguities can arise. For
example:
\begin{verbatim}
class A {
public:
virtual void foo();
};
class B : public A {
public:
~virtual void foo();
};
class C : public A, public B {
public:
void foo();
};
\end{verbatim}
Does \verb|C::foo| override \verb|A::foo| or not? Applying the
ambiguity rules described in ARM 10.1.1, \verb|C::foo| is not
virtual since the nonvirtual function \verb|B::foo| dominates
\verb|A::foo|.
In general, for a given function \verb|derived::foo| the directed
acyclic graph of base classes is searched for methods named
\verb|foo| that have the same type as \verb|derived::foo|. If none
is found, then \verb|derived::foo| is not virtual. If many are
found and none dominates (\S10.1.1) all of the others, there is an
ambiguity and the compiler should report an error. Otherwise, it
must be that exactly one is found, or many are found but one
dominates all of the others. If this function is \virtual\ then
\verb|dervied::foo| overrides it; otherwise \verb|derived::foo| is
not virtual.
\end{quote}
It might be useful also to provide a way to make an entire class
\nvirtual. This would be tantamount to specifying that all of its
member functions are \nvirtual, \ie\ that no base class virtual
function should be overridden. By contrast with ARM 10.5c [Virtual
Base Classes], this would be a property of the class, not of the
derivation. I am not in favor of permitting base classes to be
\nvirtual\ because of the potential for confusion with the semantics
of virtual base classes.
Finally, it was pointed out that a declaration with complementary
semantics would permit compilers to catch the opposite error, in
which a derived class method is declared \virtual\ with the
intention of having it override a base class method with the same
name and type signature, but a small type mismatch causes the
derived class method to be given its own vtable entry---silently.
For example:
\begin{verbatim}
class B {
public:
virtual void foo();
};
class D : public B {
public:
virtual void foo() const;
};
\end{verbatim}
In this case, calls to foo() through a pointer of type B* that
points to an object of type D will invoke B::foo(), not D::foo(), as
the programmer may have intended. Errors of this kind are generally
caught only after laborious debugging. In an independent discussion
thread, I have seen John Chapin $<$jchapin@neon.stanford.edu$>$
suggest that the \verb|catch| keyword be given the following usage:
\begin{verbatim}
class B {
public:
virtual void foo();
};
class D : public B {
public:
catch virtual void foo() const; // compile-time error
};
\end{verbatim}
It would be a compiler error for a method specified with the
\verb|catch| keyword not to have a base class method which it
properly overrides.
\section{Flexibility of name}
As an alternative to \nconst, the name \verb|!const| was suggested.
Here are two reasons why I originally chose \nconst\ instead of
\verb|!const|:
\begin{itemize}
\item
\verb|!const| seems to connote that the specified member is merely
Rnot constS. The semantics of my core proposal call for a more
active {\em overriding} of constness that would otherwise be taken
on by virtue of membership in an enclosing structure. I feel that
this meaning is more closely suggested by \nconst\ (``destroy
constness''?).
\item
People are used to seeing \verb|~| in declarations
(\ie\ in destructors),
whereas the idea of seeing \verb|!| is more foreign.
\end{itemize}
\section{Acknowledgments}
Many thanks to all those who have criticized this proposal so
thoughtfully and constructively. In particular, let me thank some
major contributors:
\begin{verse}
Jim Adcock $<$jimad@microsoft.UUCP$>$ gave detailed opinions on a
number of important issues, including the relationship with casts
from \const, and the idea of discardable memory. Also, he is to
blame for \ninline\ and \nvirtual.\\
Dag Bruck $<$dag@control.lth.se$>$ looked at several early versions,
convinced me not to leave out \nconst\ member functions, and
brainstormed on some possible alternative uses of the \nconst\
syntax.\\
Brian Kennedy $<$bmk@csc.ti.com$>$ explained to me the all-important
distinction between bitwise and abstract constness, and shared parts
of his X3J16 proposal to define more sharply the effects of casting
away the \const\ attribute in terms of bitwise and abstract
constness.\\
\end{verse}
\end{document}
--
Tom Ngo
ngo@harvard.harvard.edu
617/495-1768 lab number, leave message