harnad@phoenix.Princeton.EDU (Stevan Harnad) (08/08/90)
PSYCOLOQUY Wed, 8 Aug 90 Volume 1 : Issue 10
PsychSearch
Call for Papers - ICGA-91
IJPRAI CALL FOR PAPERS
Short course announcement
EJEP CALL FOR PAPERS
GATB MEMO
----------------------------------------------------------------------
From: "[DCJPSY]KONOWEL" <XB.DAS%STANFORD.BITNET@pucc>
Subject: PsychSearch
In June a land mail announcement was sent to some 1275 Psychology department
chairs offering a demonstration of the new PsychNet online literature search
facility PsychSearch. There is no cost nor any obligation associated with this
demonstration offer. If your department would like to arrange for such a
demonstration or requires additional information, please contact me at
KONOWEL@DCJPSY.DAS.NET or by phone at 800-541-2598.
The PsychSearch Library is the first online system able to provide full text
article retrieval as well as an abstract searching facility.
Thanks
Lee Konowe
------------------------------
From: booker@AIC.NRL.Navy.Mil
Subject: Call for Papers - ICGA-91
Call for Papers
ICGA-91
The Fourth International Conference on
Genetic Algorithms
The Fourth International Conference on Genetic Algorithms (ICGA-91),
will be held on July 13-16, 1991 at the University of California - San Diego
in La Jolla, CA. This meeting brings together an international community
from academia, government, and industry interested in algorithms suggested
by the evolutionary process of natural selection. Topics of particular
interest include: genetic algorithms and classifier systems,
machine learning and optimization using these systems, and their relations
to other learning paradigms (e.g., connectionist networks). Papers
discussing how genetic algorithms and classifier systems are related to
biological modeling issues (e.g., evolution of nervous systems, computational
ethology, artificial life) are encouraged.
Papers describing significant, unpublished research in this area are solicited.
Authors must submit four (4) complete copies of their paper, postmarked by
February 1, 1991, to the Program Co-Chair:
Dr. Richard K. Belew
Computer Science & Engr. Dept. (C-014)
Univ. California - San Diego
La Jolla, CA 92093
Electronic submissions (LaTeX source only) can be mailed to rik@cs.ucsd.edu.
Papers should be no longer than 10 pages, single spaced, and printed using
12 pt. type. All papers will be subject to peer review. Evaluation criteria
include the significance of results, originality, and the clarity and quality
of the presentation.
Important Dates:
February 1, 1991: Submissions must be postmarked
March 22, 1991: Notification to authors mailed
May 6, 1991: Revised, final camera-ready paper due
July 13-16, 1991: Conference dates
ICGA-91 Conference Committee:
Conference Co-Chairs: Kenneth A. De Jong, George Mason University
J. David Schaffer, Philips Labs
Vice Chair and Publicity: David E. Goldberg, Univ. of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign
Program Co-Chairs: Richard K. Belew, U. of California at San Diego
Lashon B. Booker, MITRE
Financial Chair: Gil Syswerda, BBN
Local Arrangements: Richard K. Belew, U. of California at San Diego
------------------------------
From: skrzypek%CS.UCLA.EDU@pucc (Dr. Josef Skrzypek)
Subject: IJPRAI CALL FOR PAPERS
IJPRAI CALL FOR PAPERS IJPRAI
We are organizing a special issue of IJPRAI (Intl. Journal of
Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence) dedicated to the
subject of neural networks in vision and pattern recognition.
Papers will be refereed. The plan calls for the issue to be
published in the fall of 1991. I would like to invite your
participation.
DEADLINE FOR SUBMISSION: 10th of December, 1990
VOLUME TITLE: Neural Networks in Vision and Pattern Recognition
VOLUME GUEST EDITORS: Prof. Josef Skrzypek and Prof. Walter Karplus
Department of Computer Science, 3532 BH
UCLA
Los Angeles CA 90024-1596
Email: skrzypek@cs.ucla.edu or karplus@cs.ucla.edu
Tel: (213) 825 2381
Fax: (213) UCLA CSD
DESCRIPTION
The capabilities of neural architectures (supervised and
unsupervised learning, feature detection and analysis through
approximate pattern matching, categorization and self-organization,
adaptation, soft constraints, and signal based processing) suggest
new approaches to solving problems in vision, image processing and
pattern recognition as applied to visual stimuli. The purpose of
this special issue is to encourage further work and discussion in
this area.
The volume will include both invited and submitted peer-reviewed
articles. We are seeking submissions from researchers in relevant
fields, including, natural and artificial vision, scientific
computing, artificial intelligence, psychology, image processing
and pattern recognition. "We encourage submission of: 1) detailed
presentations of models or supporting mechanisms, 2) formal
theoretical analyses, 3) empirical and methodological studies. 4)
critical reviews of neural networks applicability to various
subfields of vision, image processing and pattern recognition.
Submitted papers may be enthusiastic or critical on the
applicability of neural networks to processing of visual
information. The IJPRAI journal would like to encourage
submissions from both , researchers engaged in analysis of
biological systems such as modeling
psychological/neurophysiological data using neural networks as well
as from members of the engineering community who are synthesizing
neural network models. The number of papers that can be included
in this special issue will be limited. Therefore, some qualified
papers may be encouraged for submission to the regular issues of
IJPRAI.
SUBMISSION PROCEDURE
Submissions should be sent to Josef Skrzypek, by 12-10-1990. The
suggested length is 20-22 double-spaced pages including figures,
references, abstract and so on. Format details, etc. will be
supplied on request.
Authors are strongly encouraged to discuss ideas for possible
submissions with the editors.
The Journal is published by the World Scientific and was
established in 1986.
Thank you for your considerations.
------------------------------
From: BRUCE WHITEHEAD <WHITEHEAD_F%UTSIV1@pucc>
Subject: Short course announcement
SHORT COURSE ANNOUNCEMENT
Genetic Algorithms and Neural Networks
October 17-19, 1990
University of Tennessee Space Institute
Tullahoma, TN 37388
COURSE SUMMARY:
Genetic algorithms and neural networks are artificial intelligence
systems which do not require expert knowledge to be built into them.
Specific knowledge about an application domain is neither programmed
into these systems nor specified in rules. Instead, these systems
learn from examples. Knowledge about a given application domain is
automatically acquired by the system from example data points which
are representative of the domain or task to be learned. These
systems can therefore be used in applications where it would be
difficult or impractical to completely specify the desired task in a
set of rules, formulas, or programs.
While learning from examples makes genetic algorithms and neural
networks powerful, flexible, and easy to use, they are not magic.
Successfully tailoring either of these systems to a complex, real-
world problem requires a fundamental understanding of how these
systems process information and how they learn. These systems
cannot be treated as black boxes; there are choices of architectures
to be considered and many parameters to be tuned before good results
can be expected in a given application. The course objective is
therefore to understand the underlying principles, capabilities, and
limitations of these systems well enough to be able
(i) to judge, for a given application, whether either a genetic
algorithm or neural network approach would be advisable;
and if so,
(ii) to choose a specific architecture and a specific
adaptation/learning procedure well-suited to that application;
and finally,
(iii) to knowledgeably apply the chosen genetic algorithm or neural
network technique -- understanding its inner workings well enough
to know whether it is doing what it should be, and if not, to
experiment with different architectures and parameter settings
intelligently rather than blindly.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION:
For enrollment/fee information, travel and lodging information,
etc., please contact the UTSI short course office:
Short Course Office
Sandra Shankle
University of Tennessee Space Institute
Tullahoma, TN 37388
615-455-0631, ext. 276
For technical questions about the course content, please contact the
course director:
Bruce Whitehead
University of Tennessee Space Institute
Tullahoma, TN 37388
615-455-0631, ext. 296
e-mail: whitehead_f@utsiv1.bitnet
or whitehea@utkvx.bitnet
or whitehea@utkvx.utk.edu
INSTRUCTORS:
David E. Goldberg is an Associate Professor of General Engineering
at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Prior to
completing his Ph.D. at the University of Michigan, he held a
number of positions in industry and the public sector. Following
doctoral studies he held positions on the faculty of the University
of Alabama, where he authored "Genetic Algorithms in Search,
Optimization, and Machine Learning" (Addison-Wesley, 1989).
He is currently investigating the foundations of genetic algorithms
and messy genetic algorithms.
Bruce A. Whitehead is an Associate Professor of Computer Science at
the University of Tennessee Space Institute. His Ph.D. was received
from the University of Michigan in 1977 for a neural network model
of human pattern recognition. He is currently engaged in basic
research in neural network architectures and applied research in
rocket engine failure detection using neural networks.
COURSE SCHEDULE (ALL TIMES ARE CENTRAL DAYLIGHT TIME)
WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 17, 8:30-12:00
Fundamental Principles of Neural Networks (Whitehead): Synopsis of
useful concepts from linear (vector) algebra. Feedforward
architectures based on neurons which implement decision surfaces;
how neural networks learn from examples; supervised learning based
on gradient descent error minimization; unsupervised learning based
on competitive similarity measures; basic neural network
architectures based on these principles.
WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 17, 1:00-4:30
Lab in Neural Networks (Whitehead): Explanation of and
experimentation with software modules which implement each of the
fundamental principles discussed in the morning session. [Note:
Students with a potential application in mind are encouraged to
bring sample data for this application, to experiment with as
desired and to get a feel for what a neural network would do with
it. If you wish to bring such a data set, please check with Bruce
Whitehead (e-mail & phone listed above) to make sure your data is in
a format compatible with the software we will be using in the lab.]
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 18, 8:30-12:00
Fundamental Principles of Genetic Algorithms (Goldberg):
How genetic algorithms differ from conventional optimization
methods; similarity templates considered as schemata and as
hyperplanes; intrinsic parallelism; the building block hypothesis;
the fundamental genetic operators of reproduction, crossover, and
mutation.
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 18, 1:00-4:30
Lab in Genetic Algorithms (Goldberg): Explanation of software
modules based on the fundamental principles discussed in the morning
session; the structure of a simple genetic algorithm composed of
these modules; experimentation with the simple genetic algorithm.
FRIDAY, OCTOBER 19, 8:30-12:00
Genetic Algorithm Architectures and Methods (Goldberg): Objective
functions and fitness scaling; strategies for encoding the problem
domain; encoding constraints; advanced operators and techniques in
genetic search; niche and separation methods; applications of
genetic algorithms; introduction to genetics-based machine learning.
FRIDAY, OCTOBER 19, 1:00-4:30*
Neural Network Architectures and Methods (Whitehead): Taxonomy and
comparison of the major types of neural network architectures and
learning methods, including the strengths and weaknesses of each.
In-depth examination of a few representative architectures,
including those based on supervised learning (such as back
propagation, counter propagation, and the learning vector quantizer)
and those based on unsupervised learning (such as the topology-
preserving feature map). What types of applications are suitable
for neural network implementations. Comparison of neural networks
and genetic algorithms with each other and with conventional
computer science and mathematical methods.
*Note: Dr. Whitehead and the lab facilities will continue to be
available Friday evening and/or Saturday morning for any course
participants who wish to individually discuss or experiment with
their potential applications.
------------------------------
From: "[DCJPSY]KONOWEL" <XB.DAS%STANFORD.BITNET@pucc>
Subject: EJEP CALL FOR PAPERS
The Electronic Journal of Experimental Psychology is seeking articles for
on-line publication. This refereed journal is edited by Lloyd Shewchuk and is
published by PsychNet, Inc. The Journal has an ISSN number and is archieved by
the Library of Congress. Articles may be of any length. Submissions should be
made to:
PsychNet, Inc.
EJEP
80 Topstone Road
Ridgefield, CT 06877
------------------------------
From: "C. Fullerton" <APASDCF%GWUVM@pucc>
Subject: GATB MEMO
M E M O R A N D U M
To: All interested parties
From: Dianne C. Brown
Subject: Proposed Policy Guidance on the General Aptitude Test Battery
The General Aptitute Test Battery (GATB), used by state employment
agencies for selection and career counseling, has become the center of
controversy over the use of within-group scoring methods. In response to
criticisms of the within-group scoring methods, designed to reduce adverse
impact against protected groups, the Department of Labor (DOL) will be
discontinuing the use of the GATB for employment selection purposes for a
two year period during which extensive research of the test will be
conducted. During this period the GATB may still be used as a career
counseling device on a voluntary basis, or at the request of the
individual.The research plan addresses recommendations made by the National
Academy of Science (NAS) following their intensive study of the GATB.
The Employment and Training Administration of DOL has released its
proposed policy guidance on the GATB for public review and comment.
Released in the July 24 Federal Register, Vol. 55, No. 142, page 30162,
comments to the statement are requested by August 23, 1990. The final
statement and subsequent discontinuation of the GATB are scheduled for 90
days following the release of the proposed statement (or October 23). The
American Psychological Association will be submitting comments on the
proposed guideline and urges its membership with expertise in this area to
also submit comments on behalf of their institutions or as individuals.
Please send a copy of any comments you may develop to:
Dianne C. Brown
American Psychological Association
1200 Seventeenth Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
------------------------------
PSYCOLOQUY
is sponsored by
the Science Directorate of
the American Psychological Association
(202) 955-7653
Co-Editors:
(scientific discussion) (professional/clinical discussion)
Stevan Harnad Perry London
Psychology Department Dean, Graduate School of
Princeton University Applied and Professional Psychology
Rutgers University
Assistant Editors:
Malcolm Bauer John Pizutelli
Psychology Department Psychology Department
Princeton University Rutgers University
End of PSYCOLOQUY Digest
******************************harnad@phoenix.Princeton.EDU (Stevan Harnad) (08/08/90)
PSYCOLOQUY Wed, 8 Aug 90 Volume 1 : Issue 10
A response to Frank Dane's memory query
Re: Dane's memory query
----------------------------------------------------------------------
From: jean%mcc.com@pucc (Jean McKendree)
Subject: A response to Frank Dane's memory query
In response to Frank Dane's question about studies of the problem
of not being able to retrieve something from memory:
A related topic is problem-solving and creativity as related to
"incubation", i.e. putting aside the task for awhile and coming
back later. There are a number of papers on this phenomenon,
some even arguing that it doesn't happen. Some recent papers have
found evidence that it is indeed a reliable phenomenon and they
attempt to develop a theory of the cognitive mechanisms that underlie
it, usually centering on priming effects. One very interesting and
imaginative dissertation is:
C. Kaplan, "Hatching a Theory of Incubation: Does putting a problem
aside really help?", Carnegie-Mellon Psychology Department, Pittsburgh,
PA, 1989.
I think he is revising it now for publication.
Jean McKendree, MCC
------------------------------
From: tkl%flash.bellcore.com@pucc (T K Landauer)
Subject: Re: Dane's memory query
Landauer Cognitive Psych, 1,495 (1975) proposes a theory
for this memory phenomenon, which at the time, had been best demonstrated
by Buschke. There has been a lot of later work, much of it under the title
of "hypermnesia" that is relevant.
Tom Landauer
End of PSYCOLOQUY Digest
******************************harnad@phoenix.Princeton.EDU (Stevan Harnad) (08/08/90)
PSYCOLOQUY Wed, 8 Aug 90 Volume 1 : Issue 10
Symposium on The Influence of Emotion on Performance
----------------------------------------------------------------------
From: Mark Fichman <mf4f+@andrew.cmu.edu> [PSYCOLOQUY Ed. Board]
Subject: Symposium on The Influence of Emotion on Performance
(Editors Note - This is the text of a symposium to be presented at the
Academy of Management national meetings at San Francisco in August, 1990.
The authors have provided the material in the interest of generating broader
participation and exchange about their work via PSYCOLOQUY and "scholarly
skywriting.")
THE INFLUENCE OF EMOTION ON
ORGANIZATIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE
A Proposed Symposium for the 1990 National Academy of Management Meetings
Submitted for Joint Sponsorship by the Organizational Behavior and
Organizational Theory and Management Divisions January, 1990
Abstract: This symposium presents four empirical papers that provide a
broader view of the relationship between emotion and performance than
is evident in the traditional literature on job satisfaction.
Collective and individual emotions ranging from enthusiasm to hostility
are examined as predictors of organizational and individual performance.
Symposium Presenters and Authors of Symposium Papers Chairpersons
Connie J.G. Gersick
Anderson Graduate School of Management
University of California, Los Angeles
405 Hilgard
Los Angeles, CA 90024
(213) 825-9764
(213) 394-1201
IJK4CJG@UCLAVMXA.BITNET
(Presenter)
Robert I. Sutton
Department of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305
(415) 723-0480
(Presenter)
NG.RIS@STANFORD.BITNET (me)
Authors
Nicole Woolsey Biggart
Graduate School of Administration
University of California at Davis
Davis, CA 95616
(916) 752-7362
(Presenter)
no e-mail address available
Lisa H. Pelled
Department of Industrial Engineering
and Engineering Management
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305
(415) 723-9827
no e-mail address available
Anat Rafaeli
School of Business Administration
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
and
Organizational Psychology Program
Department of Psychology
The University of Michigan
West Quad L409
580 Union Drive
Ann Arbor, MI 48109
(313) 763-1466
(Presenter)
USERGETT@UMICHUB.BITNET
Barry M. Staw
School of Business Administration
University of California at Berkeley
Berkeley, CA 94720
(415) 642-6357
no e-mail address available
Discussant
Roderick M. Kramer
Graduate School of Business
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305
(415) 723-2158
(Presenter)
Symposium Overview
The classic Hawthorne study stimulated considerable organizational research
to determine if a happy worker is a productive worker. Empirical research
and debate about the magnitude and direction of the relationship between job
satisfaction and performance continues to this day. The aim of this proposed
symposium is to provide members of the Academy of Management with a broader
view of the relationship between employee emotion and performance than is
evident in the traditional literature on satisfaction as a predictor of
individual performance. This symposium comprises four empirical papers:
"Charismatic Capitalism: Socio-Emotional Control in Direct Selling," by
Nicole Woolsey Biggart; "Time, Emotion, and Momentum in Performance: What
Organization Theorists can Learn from Athletic Teams" by Connie J. G.
Gersick; "Employee Positive Emotion and Favorable Outcomes at the Workplace"
by Robert I. Sutton, Barry M. Staw, and Lisa H. Pelled; and "The Functions
and Dysfunctions of Expressed Negative Emotions in Two Social Influence Jobs:
Lessons from Bill Collectors and Interrogators" by Robert I. Sutton and Anat
Rafaeli.
The assumptions underlying the four papers are, in some ways, similar to
those underlying research on the effects of satisfaction on performance.
First, in all four papers, felt emotions are viewed as a driving force that
shapes the actions of those who experience such internal feelings. Indeed,
the idea that emotions are intervening states that propel human action is a
persistent theme throughout the psychological literature on emotion (Frijda,
1986). Second, all four papers suggest (at least implicitly) that managerial
action can shape the feelings experienced by organization members and, by
doing so, can ultimately influence individual or organizational performance.
In other ways, however, the four papers comprised by this symposium
illustrate how organizational theorists are developing a set of explanations
about the influence of emotion on the performance of organizations and their
members that is often more complex and interesting than the traditional
approach.
First, earlier work, and work that continues today on the
satisfaction-performance relationship, focuses on the effects of emotions on
the person who experiences or displays them. But each of the papers included
in this symposium suggests that emotions can also be used as tools of social
influence that bring about changes in others that are in the best interests
of the formal organization, the organization member, or both. Biggart
describes how charismatic leaders can inspire their followers to work harder
at selling products such as cosmetics, plastic containers, and vitamins.
Gersick reports that coaches often intentionally select an affective tone to
display at halftime depending on the performance of their team in the first
half of the game. Sutton, Staw, and Pelled propose that organization members
who display positive emotions will, in general, have greater success when
they attempt to wield social influence over their co-workers and superiors.
Sutton and Rafaeli use evidence from bill collectors and police interrogators
to identify when the display of negative emotions will (and will not) be
effective means for obtaining compliance from debtors and suspected
criminals.
Second, most past research reflects the implicit assumption that employees'
emotion can be influenced by the organization, but are the "property" of the
organizational incumbent. In contrast, several of the papers included in
this symposium are consistent with recent perspectives emphasizing that, just
like any other behavior, expressed emotions are role requirements, and that
such behaviors are routinely sold by employees to their employers
(Hochschild, 1983; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1989). Biggart's research suggests that
direct sales organizations including Mary Kay Cosmetics, Amway, and
Tupperware have strong norms mandating the display of enthusiasm at corporate
gatherings. Gersick's research implies that the coaches she studied are
paid, in part, for expressing certain emotions presumed to enhance team
performance and suppressing other emotions presumed to hamper team
performance. Sutton and Rafaeli's research suggests that bill collectors and
police interrogators are expected to use esteem degrading emotions as part of
their arsenal of persuasion tactics.
Third, research on the satisfaction-performance relationship has focused
exclusively on the individual level of analysis. Although emotions reside
within individuals, organizations can be distinguished by the emotions felt
and displayed by their members, and such differences may influence outcomes
at the organizational level of analysis. Two of the papers included in this
symposium suggest that collective emotion can influence organizational
performance. Biggart's research suggests that members' collective feelings
of enthusiasm about their direct sales organizations and the products they
sell are an essential part of the recipe used to maintain the participation
and performance of the members of such organizations. Gersick's research
suggests that collective feelings of enthusiasm or anger can sometimes help
bring about a turnaround when a sports team trails an opponent, and that
collective feelings of contentment or depression can cause teams to be unable
to win a game against a competitor they "should" be able to beat, or to lose
a lead against a competitor they are beating.
Fourth, while most research on the satisfaction-performance relationship is
cross-sectional, the papers included in this proposed symposium present a
dynamic view of the effects of emotion on performance. Sutton, Staw, and
Pelled's paper presents a longitudinal study of the effects of positive
emotion on employees' work achievement, job enrichment, and social context 18
to 20 months later. Gersick's research suggests an even more complex view of
the dynamic relationship between emotion and performance. She examines how
an ongoing level of performance can be changed by a midpoint shift in the
emotions shared by members of a sports team. Another set of complex dynamics
are suggested by Sutton and Rafaeli's evidence about the use the "good cop -
bad cop" social influence strategy. They found that persuasion attempts were
often more successful if -- rather than encountering only a "nice" or a
"nasty" collector or interrogator -- the target of social influence was first
exposed to a "nice" person, then exposed to a "nasty" person, and then
exposed again to the "nice" person. This practice allows the "good cop" to
say "If you just do what we are asking you, you won't have to face that nasty
person again."
Fifth, past research has focused primarily on satisfaction as an indicator of
emotion in workplace. The notion that job satisfaction has a large affective
component is evident in Locke's widely cited review, where he defined it as
"a pleasurable or positive emotional state " (1976, p.23). Yet, despite
Locke's emphasis on emotion in his definition of satisfaction, it is unclear
the extent to which this concept reflects cognitive or emotional responses.
Indeed, Brief and Roberson (1990) found that three frequently used measures
of job satisfaction varied considerably in the extent to which they reflected
emotional rather than cognitive responses. The extent to which
organizational researchers have actually been learning about the effects of
emotion on performance in studies of the satisfaction-performance
relationship is unclear.
In contrast, the papers included in this proposed symposium consider the
influence of several variables that clearly reflect the influence of emotions
(rather than cognitions) on performance. Furthermore, these papers consider
several varieties of emotion than have rarely been examined as predictors of
individual or organizational performance. Biggart considers how charismatic
leaders provoke collective enthusiastic which, in turn, can lead to
organizational and individual performance. Gersick considers the effects of
specific emotions expressed by coaches (e.g., anger and enthusiasm) on the
emotions and behaviors of team members. Sutton, Staw, and Pelled examine the
effects of a measure of positive emotion on five indications of success at
the workplace. By doing so, they provide a more direct examination of the
effects of "a pleasurable or positive emotional state" than if they had
measured one of the widely used job satisfaction measures as a predictor.
Finally, the effects of negative emotions on individual and organizational
performance have rarely been examined in past research. Sutton and Rafaeli's
research provides some initial insights into the functions and dysfunctions
of expressed negative emotions as tools of social influence.
The symposium will begin with a brief presentation of the ideas in this
overview. The overview will be followed by presentation of the four
empirical papers. Roderick M. Kramer will then offer comments on these
papers. The symposium will conclude with comments and questions from the
audience.
CHARISMATIC CAPITALISM: SOCIO-EMOTIONAL CONTROL IN DIRECT SELLING
Nicole Woolsey Biggart
What strategies are available to managers to shape and stimulate the
performance of workers? How can managers create a coordinated, productive
workforce from the raw material of many individual workers? Until recently
there have been three answers to these questions: Taylorism, human
relations, and bureaucratic control strategies. In this paper I discuss the
emergence of a fourth strategy, control through socio-emotional relations. I
illustrate this strategy with data from a study of direct selling
organizations (DSOs). DSOs stimulate and appropriate the emotional lives of
workers in the pursuit of profit. These ideas are drawn from my recent book
Charismatic Capitalism: Direct Selling Organizations in America (Biggart,
1989). I conducted 95 interviews, attended numerous industry activities as
both a participant and an observer, and gathered written information such as
training materials and data on structural arrangements.
Frederick Winslow Taylor saw the individual as the crucial unit of concern to
managers. Peak performance allegedly came from a job tailored to the skills
of the individual and a compensation scheme that rewarded individual output.
The Hawthorne studies, originally conceived as research to extend Taylor's
theory of management, ended up modifying its central premise: individuals
count, but so do social relations on the shop floor. It is not the isolated
individual, but the individual embedded in a work group that should be of
interest to managers. The human relations movement developed that insight by
studying the ways in which managers could meet the social needs of individual
workers. An alternative managerial strategy developed coterminously with
Taylorism and human relations and saw organization, not social psychology, as
the answer. Bureaucratic controls attempt to prod and pattern behavior
through impersonal devices such as rules, supervision, and standardized
procedures.
In the last ten years, it has become clear that a new form of control is
widespread in American business: socio-emotional control. Often described
as the corporate culture movement, this strategy focuses on the organization
as a value-laden entity. Workers are led to see themselves as partaking in
an important mission, an undertaking based on shared higher values.
Commitment comes from a desire to be part of something significant that may
make an enduring contribution. Commitment is also sustained by attachment to
a socio-emotional community that celebrates joint endeavors and communal
beliefs.
The corporate culture movement has penetrated organizations large and small
and in various economic sectors. However, it has largely been used as a
managerial strategy in conjunction with other forms of worker control such as
financial incentives and supervision. In contrast, in the direct selling
industry socio-emotional controls are a primary means of coordinating work
and encouraging performance. For this reason DSOs are a particularly apt
vehicle for studying the character and effectiveness of this strategy.
Unlike most forms of enterprise, direct selling organizes independent
contractors into a business community that is a legal fiction but a social
reality. Companies such as Amway and Mary Kay Cosmetics depend on the
energies of workers with whom they have no employment relation and therefore
no legal means for controlling the amount or quality of workers' selling
activity. They are laborers who cannot be induced by a paycheck, by
supervision, or even by regular social relations in a workplace. Workers are
independent and geographically dispersed.
Faced with the dilemma of depending on the performance of an "uncontrollable"
workforce, DSOs have developed a striking array of controls that aim at using
the emotional lives of workers to stimulate and sustain selling activities.
I identified some thirteen different strategies frequently in use in the
industry, but most are aimed at encouraging three processes.
The first is a socialization strategy that encourages the construction of a
new self in terms of the vision of a (typically) charismatic founder. Direct
selling distributors are led to see themselves as disciples and to embrace
the correct behavioral and emotional orientation of a "convert" to, for
example, Amway's philosophy of free enterprise. Second are a number of
strategies that encourage the distributor to accept the group of distributors
to which he or she is attached as a primary social group. Distributors are
led to embrace the community and to share in its social life through ritual
practices and frequent and emotional interaction. DSOs encourage
distributors to think of the organization as "family". Finally, DSOs attempt
to coopt distributors' actual families by bringing them into the
organizations or managing them as obstacles. Unlike most businesses that
maintain a rigid wall between work and home, DSOs manipulate distributors'
family bonds to serve the interests of the organization. DSOs recognize the
emotional pull of families and use that bond for their own ends.
This paper will conclude by discussing the extent to which these strategies
of socio- emotional control are limited to the direct selling form of
organization and which they may by employed more generally by management.
TIME, EMOTION, AND MOMENTUM IN PERFORMANCE:
WHAT ORGANIZATION THEORISTS CAN LEARN FROM ATHLETIC TEAMS
Connie J. G. Gersick
Momentum in athletics is a huge factor. It's easier, at half time, to both
gain and lose momentum. [That's] when the other team either goes in thinking
they're defeated or gets juiced up and their momentum begins to build and
they take that into the second half. -- College football coach
We look at the game in 5-minute segments that are crucial. The first 5
minutes, the 5 minutes right before half time, the 5 minutes you come out of
the locker room, and the last 5 minutes. That's half of the game. You play
well in 2 or 3 of those sets, and you're going to be successful. The most
crucial time is the 5 minutes when you come out of the locker room [in the]
second half. 'Cause if you do well then, you have put the other team in a
hole. -- College women's basketball coach
Our game is a game of changing momentum. If you get destroyed just because
you lose a couple points and you can't turn it around quickly, then your
negative swings are going to be real big. And if you're good at riding the
positive swings, you're gonna make 'em last longer. So we have a couple
little rules to try to maximize the momentum in [our] favor. -- College
men's volleyball coach
Although they represent different sports, the coaches quoted above share
several major assumptions. In interviews, all described their games in terms
of shifting streaks of momentum; all talked about temporal segments of their
games, at whose boundaries momentum is more likely to shift; and all
described the effects of emotions on the momentum of performance. Perhaps
most importantly, all have thought hard about how to "maximize the momentum
in [our] favor." I will argue in this paper that managers and theorists have
something to learn from the experience of coaches and athletes in managing
time, emotion, and momentum.
The point of departure for this research is a pair of studies about how
time-limited groups get work done (Gersick, 1989a, 1988). The groups studied
in that research (one set of project teams in the field, and one set of teams
in the laboratory) did not accomplish their work by gradually progressing
through a uniform series of stages as described in traditional theory (e.g.
Tuckman, 1965). Instead, teams progressed through a pattern of punctuated
equilibrium -- alternating periods of momentum and radical change. At the
very start of its life, each team established a unique framework of
assumptions and behavior patterns through which it approached its work.
Teams stayed -- or were stuck -- within these frameworks (even when members
disliked the way things were going) until precisely half way from each team's
beginning until its official deadline. This timing was consistent, though
teams' calendars varied from one hour in the laboratory, up to 18 weeks in
the field. Successful teams then dropped old assumptions, brought in new
ideas, and reframed their work in ways that enabled them to jump forward.
The decisions and choices made during these "midpoint transitions" formed the
basis of teams' work for the second half of their lives.
Transitions appear to be triggered by group members' identification of the
midpoint as a temporal milestone -- a time when they "ought" to move ahead,
independently of the absolute amount or quality of work accomplished. This
milestone appears to function through an interaction of rational planning and
emotion. While the midpoint "alarm clock" may be set more or less
deliberately, teams' characteristic emotional reaction to reaching
it--urgency tempered with optimism--appears critical to the success of the
transition. Some degree of urgency appears important to the team's ability
to break its initial momentum, and some degree of optimism appears important
to the team's ability to move forward with a new, untested idea (Gersick,
1989b). All observed teams expressed the need to make progress at the
midpoint, and all seemed to regard it as a moment of opportunity; however,
not every team handled that opportunity well. The data suggest that, just as
successfully managed transitions can improve a team's performance
significantly, poorly managed transitions can have tenacious debilitating
effects (Gersick, 1989a).
These findings about project groups pose some pragmatic questions about the
management of work teams. Transitions are critical events in teams' lives,
and important opportunities to improve (or destroy) team effectiveness: How
can they best be managed? For all but one observed team, the transition
waited for the midpoint, and once that had passed, teams made no additional
fundamental changes: How can teams' momentum be changed at other times, when
necessary?
This study was designed in response to those questions. My aims were to find
a "real world" arena that would offer a chance to learn about the proactive
management of momentum and transition dynamics, and about the possibilities
for "turning around" teams that have gotten off to a poor start. Many
athletic games are officially divided into temporal segments, with built-in
halftimes consciously treated as opportunities for course corrections.
Knowing how to regain the edge when an opponent is winning is a familiar part
of competition. Team sports met my criteria.
Method
Data collection. Data have been collected through semi-structured interviews
of coaches and athletes at several different schools, in a variety of sports.
(I considered but rejected an observation study, mainly because turnaround
games are sufficiently rare that one might see only one or two in a whole
season. Also, coaches were reluctant to risk the distraction of being
closely observed during games.) Two schools were approached through their
athletic directors, and interviews were sought with all coaches who responded
to a letter explaining the study and asking for volunteers. Access to
coaches from two other schools were gained through a personal contact in the
athletic department. Athletes were identified through recommendations from
coaches.
Although the sample is not random, interviewees have been chosen to insure
responses from a variety of sports, and from schools with athletic programs
of varying quality. This is to enhance the generalizability of results, and
avoid concentrating on techniques peculiar to any one sport. The interviews
have focused primarily on collecting critical events: stories from coaches
and athletes about turnaround games that started poorly and ended well, and
that started well and ended poorly. I also asked about games that started
poorly but that the team was unable to turn around, and games that went well
throughout.
Analysis. Analysis has begun on a subset of the twenty interviews collected
to date and transcribed. Turnaround stories were slightly condensed and
displayed in a uniform format. A coding scheme was developed to tag the
themes that appeared regularly in these stories, by placing code words in the
margins of condensed stories. Each interview has been condensed and coded by
a research assistant and the author.
Preliminary Findings
The whole body of data has not yet been systematically analyzed, but a few
preliminary findings can be briefly noted:
> Coaches manage athletes' perception of time (interim milestones to focus
on, how much time is left, and what goals to set for what time segments) as a
tool to optimize teams' emotions and thereby optimize performance.
> Time is manipulated to break opponents' positive momentum or one's own
negative momentum (e.g. calling time-outs or using player substitutions
solely to stop play).
> Some time-segments of the game (see opening quotations) are viewed as
especially significant for establishing momentum. Halftime emerges as
especially important across sports, and even for non-timed games.
> Turnarounds are described as occurring later in some sports than others:
Basketball teams may surge in points in the last two minutes of the game, and
more "late" turnarounds appear to be described in this sport.
> Almost no turnarounds are attributed to strategy changes; most are
attributed to changes in emotion and "intensity," resulting in better
execution of pre-planned strategies.
> Coaches in sports with half-times commonly have highly refined half-time
routines, that include collation of information, diagnosis,planning, and the
delivery of messages aimed at adjusting players' emotions. Although coaches
say that every game is different, a unified contingency plan emerges across
sports: When teams are trying hard but losing, coaches stress reassurance.
When teams are losing to a team they "ought to be beating," coaches use anger
and/or sarcasm to arouse their teams. Teams are especially vulnerable to
becoming demoralized and losing when they find their opponent "unexpectedly"
strong.
Implications
This study has potential implications for theory and practice. It may
contribute to a better theoretical understanding of the links among our
efforts to manipulate our perception of time, our emotions,and our
performance. The closest practical implications will apply to teams whose
work is rehearsed in advance, and who must execute their skills in demanding
performance situations. These findings may be particularly useful to teams
who are trained to rely on a combination of on- line analysis and
pre-rehearsed performance routines during emergencies, such as cockpit crews,
medical teams, or workers expected to deal with industrial accidents.
EMPLOYEE POSITIVE EMOTION AND FAVORABLE
OUTCOMES AT THE WORKPLACE
Robert I.Sutton, Barry M. Staw, and Lisa H. Pelled
This proposed presentation will draw on writings in psychology, sociology,
and organizational behavior to develop a conceptual framework that specifies
how positive emotion helps employees obtain favorable outcomes at work.
Figure 1 summarizes the primary themes that we will weave together from the
diverse literatures on positive emotion. We will begin by asserting that --
although people can display emotions they do not feel -- expressed and felt
emotions are difficult to separate empirically and are intertwined
conceptually. As a result, we will blend together findings about felt and
expressed positive affect. We will next review the broad range of literature
suggesting that positive emotion brings about favorable outcomes on the job
through the three sets of intervening forces outlined in Figure 1.
First, positive affect has desirable effects independent of a person's
relationships with others including persistence and enhanced cognitive
functioning. The link between positive emotion and persistence is suggested
in both laboratory and field studies (Taylor and Brown 1988). Seligman and
Schulman's (1986) longituidinal study of 103 new life insurance agents
provides perhaps the best illustration of the effect of positive emotion on
persistence. When the sample was split into optimists and pessimists,
optimists remained in their jobs at twice the rate of pessimists. Moreover,
optimists sold more insurance than pessimists. The effects of positive
emotion on cognitive functioning are supported by Isen's impressive stream of
laboratory research, which indicates that people in good moods tend to make
decisions more rapidly (Isen and Means, 1983) and to be more creative (Isen,
Daubman, and Nowicki, 1987) than people in either negative or neutral moods.
Second, positive affect has been linked to numerous desirable reactions from
others. Figure 1 proposes that positive emotion has a trio sets of effects
on employees' relationships with others. Employees with positive rather than
negative emotion are viewed as more interpersonally attractive (Coyne, 1976).
Employees who have positive affect will tend to be rated by others as having
a wide range of desirable traits, even when others lack information about
such traits (Asch, 1946). And more likeable people have more success at
wielding social influence over others (Cialdini, 1984).
Third, people with positive affect react more favorably to others, which is
reflected in greater altruism. Experimental research on altruism has
consistently shown that people who are induced to be in positive moods are
more likely to help others. Subjects who experience success at tasks are
more likely to help others (e.g., Berkowitz and Conner, 1966; Isen, 1970;
Isen, Horn and Rosenhan, 1973), as are subjects who find a dime in a
telephone booth (Isen and Levin, 1972), or are given free stationary (Isen,
Clark, and Schwartz, 1976). The hypothesis that positive emotion leads to
more altruism is also suggested by the emerging body of theory and research
on organizational citizenship. Organ (1988) summarizes a series of
cross-sectional studies indicating that job satisfaction is among the most
robust predictors organizational citizenship behaviors.
The combination of these intervening forces is hypothesized to lead to
greater success at the workplace for employees who tend to feel and display
positive rather than negative emotion. Figure 1 portrays the three
indicators of success that we will consider in this proposed presentation:
(1) achievement (e.g.,favorable supervisor evaluations and greater pay); (2)
job enrichment (e.g., variety, autonomy, feedback, and meaning); and (3) a
supportive social context (e.g. support from co-workers and supervisors).
We will report a partial test of this framework that has been made in an
18-month study of 272 employees. Data were gathered via structured
interviews with employees, structured observations of employees by trained
observers, and ratings of employees by their supervisors. We examined the
relationship between positive emotion on the job at time 1 and five favorable
outcomes on the job at time 2. For each of the five multiple regression
equations predicting a favorable outcome variable at time 2, we introduced a
measure of that outcome at time 1 as a control, along with four other control
variables: education, age, gender, and rated intelligence. If positive
emotion at time 1 was a statistically significant predictor of a favorable
outcome at time 2 over and above the effects of that dependent variable at
time 1 (and of the other four control variables), then support for our
underlying causal assumptions would be found.
The first hypothesis was that employees who had more positive emotion at work
at time 1 would receive more favorable evaluations from their supervisors and
higher pay at time 2. The findings support this hypothesis for both
supervisor evaluations and pay. Positive emotion at time 1 had a fairly
strong effect on supervisor ratings at time 2 (Beta = .31, p <. 01,
one-tailed). Positive emotion had a weak, but significant, effect on pay at
time 2 (Beta = .05, p. <.05, one- tailed). The second hypothesis was that
employees who had higher levels of positive affect at time 1 would have more
observed job enrichment at time 2. The results do not support this
prediction. Positive emotion at time 1 had a very weak and non-significant
relationship to job enrichment at time 2 (Beta = .03, ns.). The third
hypothesis was that employees who had positive affect at work at time 1 would
receive more support from their supervisors and co-workers at time 2. The
longitudinal findings support this hypothesis. Positive emotion at time 1
had a substantial effect on supervisor support at time 2 (Beta = .25, p. <
.01, one-tailed), and a modest but significant effect on co-worker support
(Beta = .09, p <.10, one-tailed).
The presentation will conclude with a discussion of paths for future research
suggested by the framework and preliminary evidence supporting the framework.
We will also discuss conditions under which positive emotion reduces rather
than enhances an employees' chances of success at the workplace.
THE FUNCTIONS AND DYSFUNCTIONS OF EXPRESSED NEGATIVE EMOTION IN TWO
SOCIAL INFLUENCE JOBS: LESSONS FROM BILL COLLECTORS AND INTERROGATORS
Robert I. Sutton and Anat Rafaeli
This proposed presentation describes a middle-range theory of the functions
and dysfunctions of negative, esteem deflating emotions in two occupations in
which employees are paid for their ability to wield social influence over
others, bill collectors and police interrogators. Bill collectors are paid
to persuade debtors to pay the money that they owe. Police interrogators are
paid for convincing suspected criminals that they should confess to various
violations of the law.
We chose to study these two occupations because there has been little
research on the expression of negative emotions in the workplace. The
emerging literature on the expression of emotion in organizational life
focuses on occupations in which service employees are paid to express good
cheer, including flight attendants (Hochschild, 1983), clerks (Sutton &
Rafaeli, 1988), and Disney employees (Van Maanen & Kunda, 1989). An
underlying assumption supporting the norms about emotional display in all of
these occupations is that when customers encounter positive emotion, they
will be more likely to patronize the organization again. The use of
expressed positive emotion as a means of persuading others is also a
persistent theme in the social psychological literature on social influence.
The literature on interpersonal attraction indicates that people who have
positive affect are more likeable than those with negative affect. Writings
on social influence suggest, in turn, that people who are more well-liked are
more successful at persuading others to comply with their requests
(Cialdini,1984).
In contrast, occupations in which negative, esteem-degrading emotions are
used as tools of social influence have been studied much less frequently.
Hochschild (1983) reports results from a modest number of interviews with
bill collectors. She concludes that collectors are generally rewarded for
the expression of nasty feelings towards debtors and that such
esteem-degrading emotions are generally effective means for making people
their bills. But her findings are preliminary, she provides little
discussion of the conceptual mechanisms that explain these findings, and she
does not consider the potential dysfunctions of expressed negative emotion
for organizational or individual performance.
In effort to go beyond Hochschild's initial research, we conducted a pair of
studies of members of two occupations who are expected to use negative,
esteem degrading emotions as a tool of social influence in order to gain
compliance from others. Sutton used an array of qualitative methods to study
telephone bill collectors working in a collection organization. These
collectors were responsible for obtaining payments from credit card customers
who were between 30 and 180 days delinquent in their payments. The
organization that Sutton studied employed approximately 350 people, who
attempted approximately 800,000 collection calls a month and held
conversations with approximately 200,000 delinquent customers in a typical
month. Sutton's three months of intermittent fieldwork included several
dozen formal and informal interviews with a key informant, one week of formal
training as a collector, one week working as a collector, sitting next to
collectors while they worked, focus group interviews with collectors, formal
interviews with managers who supervised collectors directly, formal
interviews with executives, and extensive records data including training
materials, corporate handbooks, and company newsletters.
Rafaeli used an array of qualitative methods to study a sample of 22 current
and past interrogators in Israel. This snowball sample included
interrogators who were employed by the police, the army, and who worked as
independent contractors. Almost all of these interrogators had worked in two
of these roles. The primary source of qualitative data were detailed
interviews with all 22 interrogators, which were conducted and tape-recorded
in Hebrew, and than translated and transcribed in English. These interviews
were supplemented by two live interrogations that Rafaeli witnessed, two
videotaped interrogations that Rafaeli was allowed to view, and by extensive
records data including training materials.
We are currently analyzing these qualitative data in order to induct a middle
range theory of the role of negative, esteem deflating emotions as tools of
social influence in these two occupations. Our first conclusion is that, in
both occupations, the social influence agents use expressed negative emotion,
along with subtle and explicit attacks on self-esteem, and other tactics
(e.g, bill collectors call constantly until debts are paid and interrogators
create physical discomfort by conducting interrogations in ugly, smelly rooms
or by forbidding the subject from going to the bathroom) to create anxiety in
the people they are attempting to influence. The social influence agent then
creates a situation in which the only means through which such anxiety can be
relieved is by complying with his or her request.
Second, although members of both occupations believe that relief of anxiety
is a strong source of motivation for compliance, they also agree that
expressed negative emotion is not an equally effective tool of social
influence for all of the people they attempt to influence. Our preliminary
analysis of the data from collectors and interrogators suggests the efficacy
of expressed negative emotion as a means of social influence depends on the
affective state of the target person. This model suggests that the
assumptions held by collectors and interrogators often cause them to display
emotions that are opposite of those provoked within themselves by the people
they are attempting to influence. The pattern we have detected in our data
is summarized in the following figure:
Figure 1
----------
Feelings Generated Expressed Emotions
Within Social Most Effective For
Influence Agent Influencing Target
Person
_____________________________________________
| | |
Hostile | | |
Target | Hostility | Neutrality |
Person | | |
| | |
| | |
|____________________|_______________________|
| | |
| | |
Friendly, | Neutrality, | |
Depressed, | Possibly Even | Hostility |
Or Neutral | Sympathy | |
Target | | |
Person | | |
|____________________|_______________________|
As the figure indicates, our data suggest that hostile target persons tend to
generate feelings of hostility in both collectors and interrogators. But
evidence from members of both occupations suggests they believe that a
neutral, affectively cool, demeanor is most effective for gaining control
over such difficult transactions, and that they try (sometimes without
success) to convey such emotions. There is no need to induce feelings of
anxiety in a person who is hollering and screaming -- he or she is already
feeling considerable discomfort. Hostility by the social influence agent
only enhances the anger of the target person, causing the transaction to spin
out of control. Instead, the social influence agent will be most effective
at gaining a confession or getting a payment if he or she can redefine the
target person's distress as something that can be relieved by compliance.
For example, Sutton watched and heard one collector calmly tell a screaming,
cursing debtor: "Sir, I understand that you are very upset about this late
payment. But being angry at me won't make this debt go away. I'd like to
work with you to get rid of this stress in your life." After the collector
calmly repeated this point several times, the debtors' hostility subsided and
he eventually agreed to send approximately $900.00 through express mail that
day. The debtor called several hours later to confirm that the money had
been sent.
In contrast, debtors or suspected criminals who are friendly, depressed, or
neutral towards the bill collector or interrogator are far less likely to
provoke hostility within these social influence agents. As the figure
indicates, such debtors and suspected criminals are more likely provoke
neutral, and even sympathetic, feelings in collectors and interrogators.
Nonetheless, we encountered frequent evidence that the social influence
agents were taught, and believed, that such people would be more likely to
comply with requests if some hostility was directed towards them. As one
collector with almost a decade of experience put it:
I slam em. I don't yell at them. You're not supposed to yell at them. I
just get real tough with them.
Sutton's experience indicated, however, that many collectors did yell at
debtors whom they perceived weren't sufficiently anxious about their overdue
payments. And Rafaeli's data indicated that hollering at depressed suspected
criminals was a recommended and widely used practice. We contend that
hostility is conveyed to friendly, depressed, or affectively neutral people
in attempt to generate anxiety, which can then be relieved by complying with
the request made by the bill collector or interrogator.
We currently plan to present evidence supporting the initial conceptual
perspective outlined in this proposal. We expect, however, that these models
will be refined as our analysis proceeds and that we will identify other
functions and dysfunctions of expressed negative emotion.
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Stevan Harnad Perry London
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