gvw@castle.ed.ac.uk (Greg Wilson) (11/16/90)
Several of my colleagues and I have recently completed a survey of
manufacturers of parallel computer manufacturers called "Past, Present,
Parallel". The manuscript has gone off to the publisher (Springer), and
the book should be available some time in February of 1991. The
contents of the book are given below; once it has been published I will
post bibliographic information.
We would like to thank all of those people who responded to our queries
during the past six months. Without the information and contacts you
gave us, we would never have been able to get it done.
Greg Wilson (editor/2)
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Past, Present, Parallel:
A Survey of Parallel Computing
at the Beginning of the 1990s
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Foreword . . . v
Acknowledgments and Disclaimers . . . vii
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1 Introduction . . . 1
1.1 An Introduction to Parallel Processing . . . 2
1.1.1 B. P. (Before Parallelism) . . . 2
1.1.2 Computer Architectures . . . 6
1.1.3 Computer Software . . . 9
1.1.4 Types of Parallelism . . . 12
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2 SIMD: Specialisation Equals Success . . . 13
2.1 Active Memory Technology . . . 14
2.1.1 The Company . . . 14
2.1.2 The Machine . . . 16
2.1.3 The Development System . . . 20
2.1.4 Programming Languages . . . 21
2.1.5 The Market Niche . . . 22
2.1.6 The Competition . . . 23
2.1.7 The Future . . . 24
2.2 MasPar Computer Corporation . . . 26
2.2.1 The Company . . . 26
2.2.2 The Machine . . . 27
2.2.3 The Program Development System . . . 32
2.2.4 Programming Languages . . . 32
2.2.5 The Market . . . 33
2.2.6 The Competitors . . . 34
2.2.7 The Future . . . 35
2.3 Thinking Machines Corporation . . . 36
2.3.1 The Company . . . 36
2.3.2 The Machine . . . 37
2.3.3 The Development System . . . 43
2.3.4 Programming Languages . . . 43
2.3.5 The Market Niche . . . 45
2.3.6 The Competition . . . 46
2.3.7 The Future . . . 47
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3 Shared Memory Multiprocessors: The Evolutionary Approach . . . 55
3.1 Alliant Computer Systems . . . 56
3.1.1 The Company . . . 56
3.1.2 The Hardware . . . 57
3.1.3 The Visualisation Machines . . . 59
3.1.4 Software . . . 60
3.1.5 The Market Niche . . . 61
3.1.6 The Competition . . . 62
3.1.7 The Future . . . 62
3.2 BBN Advanced Computers Inc . . . 64
3.2.1 The Company . . . 64
3.2.2 The Machine . . . 66
The Butterfly Switch . . . 66
The Processors . . . 68
The Communications System . . . 69
3.2.3 The Development System . . . 70
3.2.4 Programming Languages . . . 72
3.2.5 The Market Niche . . . 73
3.2.6 The Competition . . . 74
3.2.7 The Future . . . 75
3.3 Concurrent Computer Corporation . . . 76
3.3.1 Background . . . 76
3.3.2 The 3200 Series . . . 76
3.3.3 The 8000 Series . . . 78
3.3.4 The Market . . . 78
3.3.5 The Future . . . 79
3.4 Convex Computer Corporation . . . 80
3.4.1 The Company . . . 80
3.4.2 The Hardware . . . 81
3.4.3 Software . . . 83
3.4.4 The Market Niche . . . 84
3.4.5 The Competition . . . 85
3.4.6 The Future . . . 85
3.5 Encore Computer Corporation . . . 87
3.5.1 The Company . . . 87
3.5.2 The Machines . . . 89
Multimax . . . 89
The Encore 91 . . . 91
3.5.3 The Development System . . . 93
3.5.4 Programming Languages . . . 93
3.5.5 The Market Niche . . . 94
3.5.6 The Competition . . . 95
3.5.7 The Future . . . 96
3.6 FPS Computing . . . 97
3.6.1 The Company . . . 97
3.6.2 The Machine . . . 99
3.6.3 The Development System . . . 102
3.6.4 Programming Languages . . . 103
3.6.5 The Market Niche . . . 103
3.6.6 The Competition . . . 104
3.6.7 The Future . . . 105
3.7 Sequent Computer Systems . . . 106
3.7.1 The Company . . . 106
3.7.2 The Machine . . . 107
3.7.3 The Operating System . . . 110
3.7.4 Programming languages . . . 111
3.7.5 The Market Niche . . . 112
3.7.6 The Competition . . . 113
3.7.7 The Future . . . 113
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4 Hypercubes: A Geometry that Works . . . 125
4.1 Intel Scientific Computers . . . 126
4.1.1 The Company . . . 126
4.1.2 The Hardware . . . 127
iPSC/1 . . . 128
iPSC/2 . . . 129
4.1.3 The Concurrent I/O facility . . . 130
iPSC/860 . . . 131
4.1.4 The Software . . . 132
Languages . . . 132
Tools . . . 133
4.1.5 Sales . . . 133
4.1.6 The Market Niche . . . 134
4.1.7 The Future . . . 136
4.2 NCUBE Corporation . . . 137
4.2.1 The Company . . . 137
4.2.2 Hardware . . . 138
The NCUBE/ten . . . 138
The NCUBE/four and NCUBE/seven . . . 140
NCUBE-2 . . . 140
4.2.3 The Software . . . 142
4.2.4 The Market Niche . . . 143
4.2.5 The Opposition . . . 143
4.2.6 The Future . . . 144
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5 The Transputer and Its Offspring . . . 149
5.1 Inmos Limited . . . 150
5.1.1 The Company . . . 150
5.1.2 The Transputer . . . 153
T414 . . . 153
T800 . . . 155
T400 . . . 155
Transputer Modules (TRAMs) . . . 156
5.1.3 The Software . . . 156
5.1.4 The Market Niche . . . 156
5.1.5 The Future . . . 157
5.2 Caplin Cybernetics . . . 159
5.2.1 The Company . . . 159
5.2.2 Caplin's Product Range . . . 160
The QT Series . . . 160
HEX . . . 161
HEXsys . . . 162
5.2.3 The Market Niche . . . 163
5.2.4 Present Applications . . . 163
Computational Chemistry . . . 163
Finite Element Analysis and Computational Fluid Dynamics . . . 164
Relational Database Applications . . . 164
5.2.5 The Future . . . 164
5.3 Meiko Scientific Limited . . . 165
5.3.1 The Company . . . 165
5.3.2 The Hardware . . . 166
The In-Sun Computing Surface . . . 169
SPARC-based Computing Surface . . . 170
i860-based Computing Surface . . . 171
5.3.3 Programming Environments . . . 172
5.3.4 CSTools . . . 172
5.3.5 Sales and Marketing . . . 173
5.3.6 The Future . . . 175
5.4 Parsys Limited . . . 176
5.4.1 The Company . . . 176
The Esprit Supernode Projects . . . 176
Parsys Goes It Alone . . . 178
Telmat Informatique . . . 178
5.4.2 The Hardware . . . 179
5.4.3 The Software . . . 182
The IDRIS Operating System . . . 182
X Support . . . 183
Transputer Development System (TDS) . . . 183
Compilers and Libraries . . . 184
5.4.4 The Market Niche . . . 184
5.4.5 The Competition . . . 184
5.4.6 Current Applications . . . 185
Commercial . . . 185
Engineering . . . 185
Finance . . . 186
5.4.7 The Future . . . 186
5.5 Parsytec GmbH . . . 187
5.5.1 The Company . . . 187
5.5.2 System Overview . . . 188
Plug-in Boards . . . 188
Mid-range Systems . . . 189
The Stand-alone Systems . . . 191
5.5.3 Applications and Performance . . . 192
5.5.4 The Software . . . 193
5.5.5 The Market . . . 194
5.5.6 The Future . . . 195
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6 New Machines For New Niches . . . 201
6.1 Cogent Research Incorporated . . . 202
6.1.1 The Company . . . 202
6.1.2 The Hardware . . . 202
6.1.3 The Software . . . 204
6.1.4 The Market Niche . . . 205
6.1.5 The Future . . . 206
6.2 Silicon Graphics Incorporated . . . 207
6.2.1 The Company . . . 207
6.2.2 The Hardware . . . 208
The Personal Iris . . . 209
The SGI POWER Range . . . 210
Graphics Facilities and Add-on Hardware . . . 210
6.2.3 The Software . . . 211
The Development Machine . . . 211
Graphics and Third-party Software . . . 212
6.2.4 The Market Niche . . . 213
6.2.5 The Future . . . 214
6.3 Stardent Computer Incorporated . . . 215
6.3.1 The Company . . . 215
Stellar Computer Incorporated . . . 215
Ardent Computer Corporation . . . 217
The Partnership with Kubota . . . 218
6.3.2 The Hardware . . . 219
Stardent 3000 . . . 219
6.3.3 The Software . . . 221
Operating System and Compilers . . . 221
Visualisation Systems . . . 221
Third Party Software . . . 222
6.3.4 The Market . . . 222
6.3.5 The Future . . . 223
6.4 Teradata Corporation . . . 225
6.4.1 The Company . . . 225
6.4.2 The Hardware . . . 226
6.4.3 Interface Software . . . 228
6.4.4 Internal Software . . . 229
6.4.5 Support for Critical Environments . . . 230
6.4.6 The Marketplace . . . 230
6.4.7 The Future . . . 231
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7 Vector Supercomputers: It's Never Too Late to Parallelise . . . 239
7.1 Cray Research Inc . . . 240
7.1.1 The Company . . . 240
7.1.2 Cray X-MP -> Cray Y-MP -> C90 . . . 241
Cray X-MP . . . 241
Cray Y-MP . . . 242
The C90 . . . 243
7.1.3 Cray-2 -> Cray-3 . . . 243
Cray-2 . . . 243
Cray-3 and Cray-4 . . . 245
7.1.4 The Software . . . 246
7.1.5 The Market Niche . . . 248
7.1.6 The Competition . . . 249
7.1.7 The Future . . . 250
7.2 NEC . . . 252
7.2.1 The Company . . . 252
7.2.2 The Hardware . . . 252
7.2.3 The Software . . . 254
7.2.4 The Market . . . 254
7.3 Supercomputer Systems Inc . . . 256
7.3.1 The Company . . . 256
7.3.2 Who is Steve Chen? . . . 257
7.3.3 SSI's Options . . . 257
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8 The Giants: Biding Their Time . . . 261
8.1 Digital Equipment Corporation . . . 262
8.1.1 The Company . . . 262
8.1.2 The Hardware . . . 263
The Cm* . . . 263
ASMP and SMP . . . 263
Vax 9000 . . . 264
Firefly . . . 265
8.1.3 The Software . . . 265
Vax Software . . . 265
Firefly Software . . . 266
8.1.4 The Market . . . 267
8.1.5 The Future . . . 267
8.2 Fujitsu . . . 269
8.2.1 The Company . . . 269
8.2.2 Vector Computers . . . 269
8.2.3 The CAP-C5 Array Processor . . . 272
8.2.4 The AP-1000 Array Processor . . . 275
8.2.5 The Future . . . 277
8.3 IBM Corporation . . . 279
8.3.1 The Company . . . 279
8.3.2 The ES/9000 . . . 280
8.3.3 Operating Systems . . . 283
MVS . . . 283
VM/CMS . . . 284
8.3.4 Programming Languages . . . 284
Parallel Fortran . . . 284
Other Software . . . 285
8.3.5 The Market . . . 285
8.3.6 The Future . . . 286
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9 Software: Efficiency vs. Portability? . . . 291
9.1 Express . . . 292
9.1.1 The Express Family of Products . . . 292
9.1.2 History and Philosophy . . . 293
9.1.3 Express . . . 293
9.1.4 Cubix and Plotix . . . 295
9.1.5 Other Utilities . . . 296
9.2 Helios . . . 297
9.2.1 Perihelion and Helios . . . 297
9.2.2 The Helios Model . . . 297
9.2.3 The Helios Network . . . 298
9.2.4 Helios Programming Environment . . . 300
9.2.5 Helios as an Environment . . . 303
9.2.6 The Market for Helios . . . 303
9.3 Linda . . . 304
9.3.1 Linda Operations . . . 305
9.3.2 Linda Examples . . . 306
Client-Server . . . 306
Task Farm . . . 306
9.3.3 The Future . . . 307
9.4 Strand88 . . . 309
9.4.1 History . . . 309
9.4.2 Design . . . 310
Parallel Semantics . . . 310
Portability . . . 310
Foreign Language Interface . . . 311
9.4.3 Markets for Strand88 . . . 312
Academic Institutions . . . 313
Applied Commercial Research Laboratories . . . 313
Hardware Manufacturers . . . 313
Software Houses . . . 314
Application Developers . . . 314
9.4.4 The Competition . . . 314
9.4.5 The Future . . . 315
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10 Machines Past . . . 317
10.1 BiiN . . . 318
10.1.1 The Company . . . 318
10.1.2 The Hardware . . . 318
10.1.3 The Software . . . 320
10.1.4 The Market . . . 321
10.1.5 BiiN's Demise . . . 321
10.2 ETA Systems . . . 323
10.2.1 The Company . . . 323
10.2.2 The Hardware . . . 324
10.2.3 The Software . . . 325
10.2.4 Costs and Sales . . . 326
10.2.5 What Went Wrong? . . . 327
The Stock Market and Financing . . . 327
ETA Management . . . 328
Marketing . . . 328
CDC Management . . . 329
10.3 Multiflow . . . 330
10.3.1 Going Up . . . 330
10.3.2 Going Down . . . 332
10.3.3 Why Did Multiflow Fail? . . . 332
10.3.4 A Future for VLIW technology? . . . 333
10.4 Myrias Research Corporation . . . 335
10.4.1 The Company . . . 335
10.4.2 User-Level Model . . . 335
10.4.3 Claims About the User-Level Model . . . 337
10.4.4 Compromises in the User-Level Model . . . 338
10.4.5 The Virtual Machine and Its Implementation . . . 338
10.4.6 The Product Range . . . 339
10.4.7 Sales . . . 341
10.4.8 The End . . . 341
10.5 Symult Incorporated . . . 342
10.5.1 Ametek and Symult . . . 342
10.5.2 The Symult S2010 . . . 342
10.5.3 The Communications Network . . . 343
10.5.4 Why Did the S2010 Fail? . . . 345
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11 Machines Future . . . 353
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A Technology . . . 359
A.1 Cache Memory . . . 360
A.1.1 Performance . . . 360
A.1.2 Cache Update Policies . . . 360
A.1.3 Multicache Consistency . . . 361
A.2 Message Passing Systems . . . 361
A.2.1 Addressing of Messages . . . 362
Numeric Task and Type Identifiers . . . 362
Ports . . . 363
Channels . . . 363
Operating System . . . 363
A.2.2 Deadlock and Related Issues . . . 364
A.2.3 Controlling Message Transfer . . . 364
A.2.4 Delivering Messages . . . 365
A.2.5 Message Selection . . . 366
A.2.6 Placing Tasks . . . 366
A.3 Visualisation . . . 367
A.3.1 Doing It In Hardware . . . 367
A.4 Parallel Compilers . . . 368
A.4.1 Vectorising Compilers . . . 369
A.4.2 Parallelising Compilers . . . 370
VLIW Technology and Trace Scheduling . . . 370
Trace Scheduling . . . 371
B Units . . . 373
C Glossary . . . 375
D Trademarks . . . 383
Index . . . 387