gvw@castle.ed.ac.uk (Greg Wilson) (11/16/90)
Several of my colleagues and I have recently completed a survey of manufacturers of parallel computer manufacturers called "Past, Present, Parallel". The manuscript has gone off to the publisher (Springer), and the book should be available some time in February of 1991. The contents of the book are given below; once it has been published I will post bibliographic information. We would like to thank all of those people who responded to our queries during the past six months. Without the information and contacts you gave us, we would never have been able to get it done. Greg Wilson (editor/2) =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- Past, Present, Parallel: A Survey of Parallel Computing at the Beginning of the 1990s =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- Foreword . . . v Acknowledgments and Disclaimers . . . vii =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 1 Introduction . . . 1 1.1 An Introduction to Parallel Processing . . . 2 1.1.1 B. P. (Before Parallelism) . . . 2 1.1.2 Computer Architectures . . . 6 1.1.3 Computer Software . . . 9 1.1.4 Types of Parallelism . . . 12 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 2 SIMD: Specialisation Equals Success . . . 13 2.1 Active Memory Technology . . . 14 2.1.1 The Company . . . 14 2.1.2 The Machine . . . 16 2.1.3 The Development System . . . 20 2.1.4 Programming Languages . . . 21 2.1.5 The Market Niche . . . 22 2.1.6 The Competition . . . 23 2.1.7 The Future . . . 24 2.2 MasPar Computer Corporation . . . 26 2.2.1 The Company . . . 26 2.2.2 The Machine . . . 27 2.2.3 The Program Development System . . . 32 2.2.4 Programming Languages . . . 32 2.2.5 The Market . . . 33 2.2.6 The Competitors . . . 34 2.2.7 The Future . . . 35 2.3 Thinking Machines Corporation . . . 36 2.3.1 The Company . . . 36 2.3.2 The Machine . . . 37 2.3.3 The Development System . . . 43 2.3.4 Programming Languages . . . 43 2.3.5 The Market Niche . . . 45 2.3.6 The Competition . . . 46 2.3.7 The Future . . . 47 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 3 Shared Memory Multiprocessors: The Evolutionary Approach . . . 55 3.1 Alliant Computer Systems . . . 56 3.1.1 The Company . . . 56 3.1.2 The Hardware . . . 57 3.1.3 The Visualisation Machines . . . 59 3.1.4 Software . . . 60 3.1.5 The Market Niche . . . 61 3.1.6 The Competition . . . 62 3.1.7 The Future . . . 62 3.2 BBN Advanced Computers Inc . . . 64 3.2.1 The Company . . . 64 3.2.2 The Machine . . . 66 The Butterfly Switch . . . 66 The Processors . . . 68 The Communications System . . . 69 3.2.3 The Development System . . . 70 3.2.4 Programming Languages . . . 72 3.2.5 The Market Niche . . . 73 3.2.6 The Competition . . . 74 3.2.7 The Future . . . 75 3.3 Concurrent Computer Corporation . . . 76 3.3.1 Background . . . 76 3.3.2 The 3200 Series . . . 76 3.3.3 The 8000 Series . . . 78 3.3.4 The Market . . . 78 3.3.5 The Future . . . 79 3.4 Convex Computer Corporation . . . 80 3.4.1 The Company . . . 80 3.4.2 The Hardware . . . 81 3.4.3 Software . . . 83 3.4.4 The Market Niche . . . 84 3.4.5 The Competition . . . 85 3.4.6 The Future . . . 85 3.5 Encore Computer Corporation . . . 87 3.5.1 The Company . . . 87 3.5.2 The Machines . . . 89 Multimax . . . 89 The Encore 91 . . . 91 3.5.3 The Development System . . . 93 3.5.4 Programming Languages . . . 93 3.5.5 The Market Niche . . . 94 3.5.6 The Competition . . . 95 3.5.7 The Future . . . 96 3.6 FPS Computing . . . 97 3.6.1 The Company . . . 97 3.6.2 The Machine . . . 99 3.6.3 The Development System . . . 102 3.6.4 Programming Languages . . . 103 3.6.5 The Market Niche . . . 103 3.6.6 The Competition . . . 104 3.6.7 The Future . . . 105 3.7 Sequent Computer Systems . . . 106 3.7.1 The Company . . . 106 3.7.2 The Machine . . . 107 3.7.3 The Operating System . . . 110 3.7.4 Programming languages . . . 111 3.7.5 The Market Niche . . . 112 3.7.6 The Competition . . . 113 3.7.7 The Future . . . 113 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 4 Hypercubes: A Geometry that Works . . . 125 4.1 Intel Scientific Computers . . . 126 4.1.1 The Company . . . 126 4.1.2 The Hardware . . . 127 iPSC/1 . . . 128 iPSC/2 . . . 129 4.1.3 The Concurrent I/O facility . . . 130 iPSC/860 . . . 131 4.1.4 The Software . . . 132 Languages . . . 132 Tools . . . 133 4.1.5 Sales . . . 133 4.1.6 The Market Niche . . . 134 4.1.7 The Future . . . 136 4.2 NCUBE Corporation . . . 137 4.2.1 The Company . . . 137 4.2.2 Hardware . . . 138 The NCUBE/ten . . . 138 The NCUBE/four and NCUBE/seven . . . 140 NCUBE-2 . . . 140 4.2.3 The Software . . . 142 4.2.4 The Market Niche . . . 143 4.2.5 The Opposition . . . 143 4.2.6 The Future . . . 144 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 5 The Transputer and Its Offspring . . . 149 5.1 Inmos Limited . . . 150 5.1.1 The Company . . . 150 5.1.2 The Transputer . . . 153 T414 . . . 153 T800 . . . 155 T400 . . . 155 Transputer Modules (TRAMs) . . . 156 5.1.3 The Software . . . 156 5.1.4 The Market Niche . . . 156 5.1.5 The Future . . . 157 5.2 Caplin Cybernetics . . . 159 5.2.1 The Company . . . 159 5.2.2 Caplin's Product Range . . . 160 The QT Series . . . 160 HEX . . . 161 HEXsys . . . 162 5.2.3 The Market Niche . . . 163 5.2.4 Present Applications . . . 163 Computational Chemistry . . . 163 Finite Element Analysis and Computational Fluid Dynamics . . . 164 Relational Database Applications . . . 164 5.2.5 The Future . . . 164 5.3 Meiko Scientific Limited . . . 165 5.3.1 The Company . . . 165 5.3.2 The Hardware . . . 166 The In-Sun Computing Surface . . . 169 SPARC-based Computing Surface . . . 170 i860-based Computing Surface . . . 171 5.3.3 Programming Environments . . . 172 5.3.4 CSTools . . . 172 5.3.5 Sales and Marketing . . . 173 5.3.6 The Future . . . 175 5.4 Parsys Limited . . . 176 5.4.1 The Company . . . 176 The Esprit Supernode Projects . . . 176 Parsys Goes It Alone . . . 178 Telmat Informatique . . . 178 5.4.2 The Hardware . . . 179 5.4.3 The Software . . . 182 The IDRIS Operating System . . . 182 X Support . . . 183 Transputer Development System (TDS) . . . 183 Compilers and Libraries . . . 184 5.4.4 The Market Niche . . . 184 5.4.5 The Competition . . . 184 5.4.6 Current Applications . . . 185 Commercial . . . 185 Engineering . . . 185 Finance . . . 186 5.4.7 The Future . . . 186 5.5 Parsytec GmbH . . . 187 5.5.1 The Company . . . 187 5.5.2 System Overview . . . 188 Plug-in Boards . . . 188 Mid-range Systems . . . 189 The Stand-alone Systems . . . 191 5.5.3 Applications and Performance . . . 192 5.5.4 The Software . . . 193 5.5.5 The Market . . . 194 5.5.6 The Future . . . 195 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 6 New Machines For New Niches . . . 201 6.1 Cogent Research Incorporated . . . 202 6.1.1 The Company . . . 202 6.1.2 The Hardware . . . 202 6.1.3 The Software . . . 204 6.1.4 The Market Niche . . . 205 6.1.5 The Future . . . 206 6.2 Silicon Graphics Incorporated . . . 207 6.2.1 The Company . . . 207 6.2.2 The Hardware . . . 208 The Personal Iris . . . 209 The SGI POWER Range . . . 210 Graphics Facilities and Add-on Hardware . . . 210 6.2.3 The Software . . . 211 The Development Machine . . . 211 Graphics and Third-party Software . . . 212 6.2.4 The Market Niche . . . 213 6.2.5 The Future . . . 214 6.3 Stardent Computer Incorporated . . . 215 6.3.1 The Company . . . 215 Stellar Computer Incorporated . . . 215 Ardent Computer Corporation . . . 217 The Partnership with Kubota . . . 218 6.3.2 The Hardware . . . 219 Stardent 3000 . . . 219 6.3.3 The Software . . . 221 Operating System and Compilers . . . 221 Visualisation Systems . . . 221 Third Party Software . . . 222 6.3.4 The Market . . . 222 6.3.5 The Future . . . 223 6.4 Teradata Corporation . . . 225 6.4.1 The Company . . . 225 6.4.2 The Hardware . . . 226 6.4.3 Interface Software . . . 228 6.4.4 Internal Software . . . 229 6.4.5 Support for Critical Environments . . . 230 6.4.6 The Marketplace . . . 230 6.4.7 The Future . . . 231 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 7 Vector Supercomputers: It's Never Too Late to Parallelise . . . 239 7.1 Cray Research Inc . . . 240 7.1.1 The Company . . . 240 7.1.2 Cray X-MP -> Cray Y-MP -> C90 . . . 241 Cray X-MP . . . 241 Cray Y-MP . . . 242 The C90 . . . 243 7.1.3 Cray-2 -> Cray-3 . . . 243 Cray-2 . . . 243 Cray-3 and Cray-4 . . . 245 7.1.4 The Software . . . 246 7.1.5 The Market Niche . . . 248 7.1.6 The Competition . . . 249 7.1.7 The Future . . . 250 7.2 NEC . . . 252 7.2.1 The Company . . . 252 7.2.2 The Hardware . . . 252 7.2.3 The Software . . . 254 7.2.4 The Market . . . 254 7.3 Supercomputer Systems Inc . . . 256 7.3.1 The Company . . . 256 7.3.2 Who is Steve Chen? . . . 257 7.3.3 SSI's Options . . . 257 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 8 The Giants: Biding Their Time . . . 261 8.1 Digital Equipment Corporation . . . 262 8.1.1 The Company . . . 262 8.1.2 The Hardware . . . 263 The Cm* . . . 263 ASMP and SMP . . . 263 Vax 9000 . . . 264 Firefly . . . 265 8.1.3 The Software . . . 265 Vax Software . . . 265 Firefly Software . . . 266 8.1.4 The Market . . . 267 8.1.5 The Future . . . 267 8.2 Fujitsu . . . 269 8.2.1 The Company . . . 269 8.2.2 Vector Computers . . . 269 8.2.3 The CAP-C5 Array Processor . . . 272 8.2.4 The AP-1000 Array Processor . . . 275 8.2.5 The Future . . . 277 8.3 IBM Corporation . . . 279 8.3.1 The Company . . . 279 8.3.2 The ES/9000 . . . 280 8.3.3 Operating Systems . . . 283 MVS . . . 283 VM/CMS . . . 284 8.3.4 Programming Languages . . . 284 Parallel Fortran . . . 284 Other Software . . . 285 8.3.5 The Market . . . 285 8.3.6 The Future . . . 286 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 9 Software: Efficiency vs. Portability? . . . 291 9.1 Express . . . 292 9.1.1 The Express Family of Products . . . 292 9.1.2 History and Philosophy . . . 293 9.1.3 Express . . . 293 9.1.4 Cubix and Plotix . . . 295 9.1.5 Other Utilities . . . 296 9.2 Helios . . . 297 9.2.1 Perihelion and Helios . . . 297 9.2.2 The Helios Model . . . 297 9.2.3 The Helios Network . . . 298 9.2.4 Helios Programming Environment . . . 300 9.2.5 Helios as an Environment . . . 303 9.2.6 The Market for Helios . . . 303 9.3 Linda . . . 304 9.3.1 Linda Operations . . . 305 9.3.2 Linda Examples . . . 306 Client-Server . . . 306 Task Farm . . . 306 9.3.3 The Future . . . 307 9.4 Strand88 . . . 309 9.4.1 History . . . 309 9.4.2 Design . . . 310 Parallel Semantics . . . 310 Portability . . . 310 Foreign Language Interface . . . 311 9.4.3 Markets for Strand88 . . . 312 Academic Institutions . . . 313 Applied Commercial Research Laboratories . . . 313 Hardware Manufacturers . . . 313 Software Houses . . . 314 Application Developers . . . 314 9.4.4 The Competition . . . 314 9.4.5 The Future . . . 315 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 10 Machines Past . . . 317 10.1 BiiN . . . 318 10.1.1 The Company . . . 318 10.1.2 The Hardware . . . 318 10.1.3 The Software . . . 320 10.1.4 The Market . . . 321 10.1.5 BiiN's Demise . . . 321 10.2 ETA Systems . . . 323 10.2.1 The Company . . . 323 10.2.2 The Hardware . . . 324 10.2.3 The Software . . . 325 10.2.4 Costs and Sales . . . 326 10.2.5 What Went Wrong? . . . 327 The Stock Market and Financing . . . 327 ETA Management . . . 328 Marketing . . . 328 CDC Management . . . 329 10.3 Multiflow . . . 330 10.3.1 Going Up . . . 330 10.3.2 Going Down . . . 332 10.3.3 Why Did Multiflow Fail? . . . 332 10.3.4 A Future for VLIW technology? . . . 333 10.4 Myrias Research Corporation . . . 335 10.4.1 The Company . . . 335 10.4.2 User-Level Model . . . 335 10.4.3 Claims About the User-Level Model . . . 337 10.4.4 Compromises in the User-Level Model . . . 338 10.4.5 The Virtual Machine and Its Implementation . . . 338 10.4.6 The Product Range . . . 339 10.4.7 Sales . . . 341 10.4.8 The End . . . 341 10.5 Symult Incorporated . . . 342 10.5.1 Ametek and Symult . . . 342 10.5.2 The Symult S2010 . . . 342 10.5.3 The Communications Network . . . 343 10.5.4 Why Did the S2010 Fail? . . . 345 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- 11 Machines Future . . . 353 =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- A Technology . . . 359 A.1 Cache Memory . . . 360 A.1.1 Performance . . . 360 A.1.2 Cache Update Policies . . . 360 A.1.3 Multicache Consistency . . . 361 A.2 Message Passing Systems . . . 361 A.2.1 Addressing of Messages . . . 362 Numeric Task and Type Identifiers . . . 362 Ports . . . 363 Channels . . . 363 Operating System . . . 363 A.2.2 Deadlock and Related Issues . . . 364 A.2.3 Controlling Message Transfer . . . 364 A.2.4 Delivering Messages . . . 365 A.2.5 Message Selection . . . 366 A.2.6 Placing Tasks . . . 366 A.3 Visualisation . . . 367 A.3.1 Doing It In Hardware . . . 367 A.4 Parallel Compilers . . . 368 A.4.1 Vectorising Compilers . . . 369 A.4.2 Parallelising Compilers . . . 370 VLIW Technology and Trace Scheduling . . . 370 Trace Scheduling . . . 371 B Units . . . 373 C Glossary . . . 375 D Trademarks . . . 383 Index . . . 387